TEXTURE

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GOOGLE SEARCH OF food texture, viscosity, food shear, food compression, food tenderness, food texture testing, food texture instruments.

http://innfm.swan.ac.uk:80/bsr/frontend/home.asp?shockwave=1
British Society of Rheology is interested in the deformation and flow of matter during extraction and processing of crude oil, moulding of plastics, use of toothpaste, spreading of margarine, painting and the lubrication of joints in the human body are all examples of processes depending upon rheological behaviour. Has many links andinformation resources to journals and other reheolotical information.
http://www.euronet.nl/users/bota/ab_pfs~1.htm
Fabricated fat-based foods information on the book by Dick W. de Bruijne & Arjen Bot Food texture: measurement and perception (editor: A.J. Rosenthal), (Aspen, Gaithersburg, 1999), p. 185-227
http://www.foodtechcorp.com/
Food Technology Corporation has texture measurement systems and tenderometers. FTC has a range of instruments for texture measurements in the field, factory and laboratory. Products include the Kramer Shear Press, the industry standard Pea Tenderometer, TMS-Pro Universal Testing Machine and its associated probes and accessories. Allo-Kramer Shear press; Lee-Kramer Shear Press; Kramer Shear Press - The first names are brands under which the unit was manufactured prior to becoming the Food Technology Corporation Texture Test System

http://savell-j.tamu.edu/shearstand.html
Warner-Bratzler Shear Standards A committee was formed in April, 1994 at the request of the National Cattlemen's Association to develop standards for Warner-Bratzler Shear force determinations for institutions performing genetic evaluations of beef tenderness. The standards are available here as either regular hypertext or as an Adobe Acrobat PDF.
http://www.instron.com/index.asp
Instron has a texture measuring device. Information and expertise is available.
http://www.textureAnalysis.com/
Texture Analysis has information on products to measure texture, tutorials, glossary, bibliographies, and contact informaton.
http://www.texturetechnologies.com/
Texture Technologies Corp is the site with information regarding the TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer.
http://food.oregonstate.edu/references/texture/texture.html
Selected Texture References
IMAGES to Top

Equipment Images

INFORMATION to Top

Texture Theory and Discussion

This is a first draft of a web site on TEXTURE IN FOODS. It is a very rough draft. This seems to work towards getting something started. If anyone wants to contribute, I would be willing to put their page up and/or establish a link to their page or resources regarding texture. This might be articles, commercial catalogs, ideas, images, etc.

Texture is a mechanical behavor of foods measured by sensory (physiological/psychological) or physical (rheology) means. Rheology is the study of the science of deformation of matter. There are four main reasons for for studying rheology

  • study allows insight into structure
  • used in raw material and process control in industry
  • applications to machine design
  • revelance to acceptability by the consumer
    • However irregardless of the reason for study texture, it is difficult to classify and sharply understand because of the enormous range of materials and food materials behave differently under different conditions. Part of the problem is that to study the texture of foods one needs to have reference or standard materials. If one has a good reference material it should be structureless (there are no atoms), isotropic (same properties in all directions), and imaginary (does not exist in reality).

    If one really wanted to understand texture and the relationships of stress-strain and deformation, they should deal with representative models. Some of these are as follows:

  • Hooke solid (ideal solid)
  • Kelvin-Voigt model(visco-elastic solid)
  • Bingham model(ideal plastic)
  • Maxwell model (visco-elastic liquid)
  • Newtonian fluid (ideal liquid)
    Texture testing in foods is based upon the action of stress and strain. Many of the methods are based upon compression, shearing, shear-pressure, cutting or tensile strength. These are reviewed in the following figure which defines the ideal reference materails in terms of shear and stress.

    Fundamental Testing

    Fundamental rheological test results are returned in terms of kilograms, metres, and seconds. Whatever the method used, the same result is obtained within the experimental error. Unfortunately food is exceedingly complicated rheologically and fundamental testing is often laborious and time consuming and does not give simple answers. An empirical method may provide very useful information even if the results cannot be compared for different methods of test.

    Empirical Testing

    Empirical tests are those tests which have been found to practically correlate with textural quality. They correlate with textural qualitiues.They may include puncture, shear, extrusion tests.

    Apparent Testing

    Many of the tests used in evaluating foods are dependent upon the conditions and the method of handing the ingredients and food. Following are some areas that are of interest.
  • Viscosity is simply defined as being resistance to flow. However, the real question is the type of flow, how does stress and strain impact it?

    • Imitative Tests Imitative tests try to imitate with instruments what the human perceives when eating.
    REFERENCES to Top

    Abbott, J.A., D.R. Massie, and A.E. Watada. 1982. The use of a computer with an instron for textural measurements. Journal of Texture Studies 13:413-422.

    Abbott, J.A., G.S. Bachman, R.F. Childers, J.V. Fitzgerald, and F.J. Matuslk. 1968. Sonic techniques for measuring texture of fruits and vegetables. Food Technology 22:636.

    Abbott, J.A. 1972. Sensory assessment of food texture. Food Technology 26(1):40.

    Alsmeyer, R.H., J.W. Thorton, R.L. Hiner. and N.C. Bollinger. 1966. Beef and pork tenderness measured by the press, Warner-Bratzler and STE methods. Food Technology 20:683.

    Anderson, P.C., J.L.C. Rapp and D.F. Costell. 1972. Rotating dull knife tenderometer. Food Technology 26(1): 25.

    Angel, S. , A. Kramer and J.N. Yeatman. 1964. Physical method of measuring quality of canned peas. Food Technology 19:1278.

    Anker, C.A. and W.F. Geddes. 1944. Gelatinization studies upon wheat and other starches with amylograph. Cereal Chemistry 21:335.

    Bailey, M.E., H.B. Hedrick, F.C. Parrish, and H.D. Naumann. 1962. L.E.E.--Kramer shear forces as a tenderness measure of beef steak. Food Technology 16(12):99.

    Ball, C.O., H.E. Clauss, and E.F. Stier. 1957. Factors affecting quality of prepackaged meat. IB. Loss of weight and study of texture. Food Technol. 11:281.

    Barnard, K.M. 1966. New materials aid comparisons of volume, texture, and contour of baked products. J Home Econ. 58(6): 479.

    Bechel, W.G. 1950. Measurements of properties of corn starch gels. J. of Colloid Science 5:260.

    Becket, W.G. 1951. Examination of starch dispersions with phase microscope. 28:29.

    Blair, G. W. S. 1958. Rheology In Food Research. Advances In Food Research 8:1
    Review Article, Imitative Test, Empirical Test, Fundamental Test, Rheology, Texture, Swanson-Working Dough Mixer, Alveograph, Chopin Extensimeter, Butter, Fat Spreader, Newtonian Fluid, Orifice Viscometer, Penetrometer, Tenderometer, Bloom Gelometer, Adams Consistometer, Linespread Consistometer, Curd, Curd-O-Meter, Weissenberg Effect, Viscosity

    Blocksma, A.H. 1967. Detection of changes in modulus and viscosity of wheat flour doughs by the "work technique" of Muller et al. Journal Science Food Agriculture 18:49.

    Bourne, M.C. 1966. Measures of shear and compression components of puncture test. Journal Food Science 31: 282.

    Bourne, M.C. 1968. Texture profile of ripening pears. Journal Food Science 33: 223.

    Bourne, M.C. 1978July. Texture Profile Analysis. Food Technology :62?

    Bourne, M.C. and A.H. Comstock. 1981. Effects of compression on texture profile parameters. Journal Texture Studies 12: 201.

    Bourne, M.C. 1965. Studies on punch testing of apples. Food Technology 19:413.

    Bourne, M.C., J.C. Moyer, and D.B. Hand. 1966. Measurement of food texture by a universal testing machine. Food Technol. 20:522.

    Bourne, M.C. and J.C. Moyer. 1968. The extrusion principle in texture measurement of fresh peas. Food Technology 22:1013.

    Bourne, M.C. 1972. Texture measurement of individual cooked dry beans by the puncture test. Journal of Food Science 37:751.

    Bouton, P.E. and P.V. Harris. 1972. a comparison of some objective methods used to assess meat tenderness. J. Food Sci. 37:218.

    Boyde, J.U. and P. Sherman. 1975. A study of force compression conditions associated with hardness evaluation in several foods. Journal Texture Studies 6: 507.

    Brady, D. E. 1952. Physical Research Methods. Proceedings Fifth Annual Reciprocal Meats Conference, June 10-12, 1952 5:148
    Physical Research Method

    Brady, P.L. and M.P. Penfield. 1981. Textural characteristics of beef -- Effects of heating system. Journal Food Science 46: 216.

    Brandt, M.A., E. Skinner, and J. Coleman. 1963. Texture profile method. J. Food Sci. 28:404.

    Brennan, J.G., R. Jowitt, and A. Williams. 1974. Sensory and instrumental measurement of 'brittleness' and 'crispness' in biscuits. IN Proc. IV Intl. Congress Food Sci. and Technology 3: 130.

    Brown, R.O. and C.G. Harrol. 1944. Use of amylograph in the cereal laboratory. Cereal Chemistry 21:360.

    Burgers, J.M. and G.W. Scott Blair. 1949. "Report on the Principles of Rheological Nomenclature, Joint Committee on Rheology of the International Council of Science Unitons." Proc. Intern. Congr. Rheology, Holland, 1948

    Burrill, L.M., D. Deethardt, and R.L. Saffle. 1962. Two mechanical devices compared with taste-panel evaluation for measuring tenderness. Food Technology 16(10):145.

    Calzada, J.F. and M. Peleg. 1978. Mechanical interpretation of compressive stress-strain relationships of solid foods. Journal Food Science 43: 1087.

    Campion, D.L., D.K. Law and L.S. McGill. 1972. An apparatus for measurement of contractile properties of porcine skeletal muscle. Journal of Food Science 27:799.

    Cardello, A.V., O. Muller, J.G. Kapsalis, R.A. Segars, F.M. Sawyer, C. Murphy, and H.R. Moskowitz. 1982. Perception of texture by trained and consumer panelists. Journal Food Science 47: 1186.

    Carpenter, Z.L., K.G. Kauffnram, R.W. Bray, and K.G. Weckel. 1965. Objective and subjective measures of pork quality. 19:1425.

    Charm, S.E. 1962. The nature and role of fluid consistency in food engineering applications. Advanced Food Research 11:356.

    Charm, S.E. and W. McComis. 1965. Physical measurements of gums. food technology 19:948.

    Chichester, C.E. and C. Sterling. 1957. Measuring stress relaxation in starch gels. Cereal Chem. 34:233.

    Civille, G.V. and J.H. Liska. 1975. Modifications and application to foods in the General Foods sensory texture profile technique. Journal Texture Studies 6: 19.

    Culioli, J. and P. Sherman. 1976. Evaluation of Gouda cheese firmness by compression tests. Journal Texture Studies 7: 353.

    Dassow, J.A., L.G. McKee. and R.W. Nelson. 1962. Development of an instrument for evaluating texture of fishery products. Food Technology. 16(3):108.

    Davis, J.G. 1937. The rheology of cheese, butter and other milk products (the measurement of "body" and "texture". J. Dairy Research 8:245.

    Davision, S.B.A.L., B.E. Procter, and P. Felsenthal. 1959. A strain gage pea tendrometer. I. Instrument description and evaluation. Food Technology 13:119.

    Dempster, C.E., I. Hlynka. and C.A. winkler. 1952. Quantitative extensograph studies of relaxation of internal stresses in non-fermenting bromated and unbromated doughs. Cereal Chemistry 29:29.

    Dessow, J.A. , L.C. McKee, and R.W. Nelson. 1962. Development of an instrument for evaluating texture of fishery products. Food Technology 16(3):108.

    Deatherage, F.E. and W. Reiman. 1945. Measurement of beef tenderness and tenderization of beef by tenderay process. Food Research 11:525.

    Eirich, F.Q., editor. 1958. "Rheology, Theory and Applications." Academic Press, New York.

    Elder, A. L. and R.J. Smith. 1969May. Food rheology today. Food Technology 23:629.

    Elder, A.L. and R.J. Smith. 1969. Food rheology today. Food Technology 23:629.

    Engle, R. 1928. "Experimentelle Utersuchengen uber die Abhangigheit der lust and Unlust von der Reizstarke biem Gesch mackssinn." Arch. Ges. Psychol. 64:1-36. Stuttgart, Germany.

    Ferry, C.A. and P.A. Carroad. 1980. Influence of acid related manufacturing practices on properties of cottage cheese curd. Journal Food Science 45: 1980.

    Fetzer, W.R. and L.C. Krist. 1959. Estimation of starch paste fluidities. Cereal Chemistry 36:108.

    Finkowski, J.W. and M. Peleg. 1981. Some rheological properties of soy extrudates in tension. Journal Food Science 46: 207.

    Friedman, H.H., J.E. Whitney, and A.S. Szczesniak. 1963. The texturometer, a new instrument for objective texture measurement. J. Food Sci. 28:390.

    Gacula, M.C. Jr., J. Reaume, K.J. Morgan, and R.L. Luckett. 1971. Statistical aspect of the correlation between objective and subjective measurements of meat tenderness. Journal Food Science 36:185.

    Garrett, A.W., N.W. Besroslor, G.D. Kuh, and M.L. Fleids. 1960. Evaluation of instruments to measure firmness of tomatoes. Food Technology 14:562.

    Grogg, B. and E.F. Caldwell. 1958. Gelatinization of starch materials in the farinograph. Cereal Chemistry 35:196.

    Gruber, S.M. and M.E. Sabik. 1966. Comparison of sensory evaluation and shear-press measurements of butter cakes. Food Technology 20:968.

    Grunden, L.P., J.H. MacNeil. and P.S. Nimick. 1972. Poultry product quality: Chemical and physical characteistics of mechanically deboned poultry meat. Journal of Food Science 37:247.

    Hagberg, S. 1960. A rapid method of determining alpha-amylase activity. Cereal Chem. 37:218.

    Hall, R.C. and H.C. Fryer. 1953. Consistency evaluation of dehyrated potato granules and direction for microscopic rupture count procedure. Food Technol. 7:373.

    Halliday, E. 1937. Objective tests for cooked food. Food Res. 2:287.

    Harrington, J., and A.M. Pearson. 1962. Chew count as a measure of tenderness of pork loins with various degrees of marbling. Journal of Food Science 27:106.

    Hart, F. L. and H.J. Fisher. 1971. "Modern Food Analysis." Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Hayward, L.H., M.C. Hunt, C.L. Kastner, and D.H. Kropf. 1980. Blade tenderization effects on beef, sensory and Instron textural measurements. Journal Food Science 45: 925.

    Heiss, R. 1959. Prevention of stickness and graining in stored hard candies. Food Technology 13:433.

    Henry, W.F. and M.H. Katz. 1969. New dimensions relating to the textural quality of semi-solid foods and ingredient systems. Food Technology 23:822.

    Hjermstad, E.T. 1955. A recording gel tester. Cereal Chemistry 32:200.
    Hlynka, K. and J.A. Anderson. 1946. A machine for measuring the extensibility and resistance to extension of gluten. Cereal Chemistry 23:115.

    Hyinka, I. and R.R. Matsuo. 1959. Quantitative relation between structural relaxation and bromate in dough. Cereal Chemistry 36:312.

    Irvine, G.N., J.W. Bradley, and G.C. Martin. 1961. A farinograph technique for macaroni dough. Cereal Chem. 38:153.

    Jacobsen, M. and G. Arbruster. 1968. A recording micro-panetromenter, design and application. Food Technology 22:1007.

    Johnson, C.F., E.C. Maxie, and E.M. Elbert. 1965. Physical and sensory tests on fresh strawberries subjected to gamma radiation. Food Technology 19:419.

    Jowitt, R. 1974. The terminology of food texture. Journal Texture Studies 5: 351.

    Isherwood, F.A. 1960. Some facotrs involved in the texture of plant tissues. IN "Texture in Foods." Soc. Chem. Ind. Monograph No. 7, pp. 135.

    Katz, M.H. 1972. Correlating physical and sensory measurements to quantify the functional properties of carbohydrats. Food Technology 26(3):20.

    Kokini, J.L., J.B. Kadane, and E.L. cussler. 1977. Liquid texture perceived in the mouth. Journal Texture Studies 8: 195.

    Kramer, A. and B. A. Twigg. 1973. Quality Control for the Food Industry. Volume 2- Applications. The AVI Publishing Company, Inc. TP370 K7. 1970. v. 2.

    Kramer, A. 1972January Texture- Its definition, measurement & relation to other attributes of food quality. Food technology :34.
    Kramer, A. 1969. The relevance of correlating objective and subjective data. Food Technology 23:66.

    Kramer, A. and J.V. Hawbecker. 1966. Measuring and recording rheological properties of gels. Food Technology 20:111.

    Kramer, A. and B.A. Twigg. 1959. Principles and instrumentation for the physical measurement of food quality with special reference to fruits and vegetables. Advan. Food Res. 9:153-220.

    Kramer, F. and H. Rosental. 1965. Determination of bloom of gelatin in solutions at non-standard concentrations. Food Technology 19:1417.

    Kropf, D.H. and R.L. Graf. 1959. Interrelationships of subjective, chemical and sensory evaluations of beef quality. Food Technology 19:1417.

    Kropf, D.H. and R.L. Graf. 1959. Interrelationships of subjective, chemical and sensory evaluations of beef quality. Food Technology 13:492.

    Kulwich, R., R.W. Decker, and R.H. Alsmeyer. 1963. Use of silca-tenderness evaluation device with pork. Food Technology 17:201.

    Lancaster, E.B. and R.A. Anderson. 1959. Consistency measurements on batters, doughs, and pastes. Cereal Chem. 36:420.

    Lynch, L.J., R.S. Mitchell, and D.J. Casimir. 1959. The chemistry and technology of the preservation of green peas. Advan. In Food Res. 9:61-62.

    MacFarlane, P.G. and J.M. Marer. 1966. An apparatus for determining the tenderness of meat. Food Technology 20:838.

    Mackey, Andrea C., Margaret M. Hard, and Mary V. Zaehringer. 1973January. Measuring Textural Characteristics of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables - Apples, Carrots, and Cantaloupes. A Manual of Selected Procedures. Technical Bulletin 123. Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University Corvallis, OR.

    Martin, L.F. 1955. Application of research to problems of candy manufacture. Advances in Food Research 6:1.

    Matz, S.A. 1962. "Food Texture," AVI Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Conn.

    Mazurs, E.G., T.J. Schoch, and F.E. Kite. 1957. Graphical analysis of Brabender viscosity curves of various starches. Cereal Chem. 34:141.

    Mayer, L.H. 1960. "Food Chemistry." Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York.

    Miller, G.A., E.M. jones, and P.J. Aldrich. 1959. a comparison of the gleation properties and palatabiilty of shell eggs, frozen whole eggs and whole egg solids in standard baked custard. Food Research 24:584.

    Mitchell, R.S., D.J. Cesimer and L.J. Lynch. 1961. The maturometer-instrumental test and redesign. Food Technology 15:

    Miyada, D.S. and A.L. Tappel. 1956. Meat tenderization. I. Two mechanical devices for measuring textures. Food Technology 10:142.

    Moreau, J. and M. Lavie. 1971. An emulsion method for rapid determination of fat in raw meats. J. Food Sci. 36:760.

    Muller, H.G., M.V. Williams, D.W. Russell-Eggitt, and J.B. Coppock. 1969. Fundamental studies on dough with the Brabender extensograph. I. Determination of stress-strain curves. Journal Sciencence Food Agric. 12:513.

    Muller, H.G., M.V. Williams, P.W. Russell-Eggitt, and J.B. Coppock. 1962. Fundamental studies on dough with the Brabender extensograph. II. Determination of the apparent elastic modulus and cofficent viscosity of wheat-flour dough. J. Sci. Food Agric. 13:572.

    Muller, H.G., M.V. Williams, P.W. Russell-Eggitt, and J.B. Coppock. 1963. Fundamental studies on dough with Brabender extensograph. III. The work techniques. J. Sci. Food Agric. 14:665.

    Peleg, M. 1978. Some mathematical aspects of mastication and its simulation by machines. Journal Food Science 43: 1093.

    Peleg, M. 1980. Theoretical analysis of the relationship between mechanical hardness and its sensory assessment. Journal Food Science 45: 1156.

    Peleg, M. and M.D. Normand. 1982. A computer assisted analysis of some theoretical rate effects in mastication and in deformation testing of foods. Journal Food Science 47: 1572.

    Peleg, M. 1983November. The semantics of rheology and texture. Food Technology :54-61.

    Pomeranz, Y. and C.E. Molean. 1971. "Food Analysis: Theory and Practice," AVI Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Conn.

    Powrie, W.D., E. A. Asselberger. 1957. A study of canned syrup-pack whole carrots. Food Technology 11:275.

    Proctor, b.E., S. Davidson, G.J. Malecki, and M. Welch. 1955. A recording strain-gage denture tendrometer for foods. I. Instrument evaluation and initial tests. Food Technology 9:471.

    Proctor, B.E., S. Davidson, and A.L. Brody. 1956. A recording strain gage denture tenderometer for foods. II. Studies on the maticatory force and motion, and face-penetration relationship. Food Technology 10:327.

    Schachat, R.E. and A. Nacci. 1960. Transistorized bloom gelometer. Food Technology 14:117.

    Scott Blair, G.W. 1949. "A Survey of General and Applied Rheology." Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, London.

    Scott Blair, G.W. 1953. "Foodstuffs, Their Plasticity, Fluidity and Consistency." Interscience Publishers, Amsterdam, New York.

    Scott Blair, G.W., and M. Reiner. 1957. "Agricultural Rheology" Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.

    Scott-Blair, W.G. 1954. The subjective assessment of formness. Lab. Practice 3: 3.

    Scott-Blair. 1958. Rheology in food research. Adv. in Food Res. *:1-61.

    Sharrah, N., M.S. Kunze, and R.M. Pangborn. 1965. Beef tenderness: sensory and mechanical evaluation of animals of different breeds. Food Technology 19:233.

    Sharrah, N., M.S. Kunze, and R.W. Pangborn. 1965. Beef tenderness: Comparison of sensory methods with the Warner-Bratzler and L.E.E. - Kramer shear presses. Food Technology 19:238.

    Sharma, P. and P. Sherman. 1973. Evaluation of some textural properties of foods with the Instron Universal testing machine. Journal Texture Studies 4: 344.

    Sherman, P. 1965. The texture of ice cream. J. Food Science 30:201.

    Sherman, P. 1969. A texture profile of food stuffs based upon well-defined rheological properties. J. Food Sci. 34:458.

    Sherman, P. 1972. Structure and textural properties of foods. Food Technology 26(3):69.

    Shimizu, T., F. Hideaki, and A. Ichiba. 1958. Physical properties of noodles. Cereal Chem. 35:34.

    Simon, S., J.C. Field, W.E. Kramlich, and F.W. Tauber. 1965. Factors affecting frankfurter texture and amethod of measurements. Food Technology 19:410.

    Sistrunk, W.A. and J.N. Moore. 1967. Assessment of strawberry quality-fresh or frozen. Food Technology 21:449.

    Smith, H.R. 1947. Objective measurement of quality in foods. Food Technology 1:345.

    Somers, G.F. 1962. viscoelastic properties of storage tissues from potatoes, apples and pears. J. of Food Sci. 30:922.

    Sperring, D.D., W.T. Platt, and R.L. Hiner. 1959. Tenderness in beef muscle measured pressure. Food Technology 14:155.

    Stanley, D.W., G.P. Pearson, and V.E. Coxworth. 1971. Evalaution of certain physical properties of meat using a universal testing machine. Journal of Food Sci. 36:256.

    Szczesniak, A.S. 1968., Correlations between objective and sensory texture measurements. Food Technology 22:981.

    Szczesniak, A.S. 1972. Instrumental methods of textural measurements. Food Technology 26(1):50.

    Szczesniak, A.S. and E. Farkas. 1962. Objective characterization of the mouthful of gum solution. Journal of Food Sci. 27:387.

    Szczesniak, A.S. and D.W. Kleyn. 1963. Consumer awareness of texture and other food attributes. Food Technology 17:74.

    Szczesniak, A.S. and K.W. Torgeson. 1965. Methods of meat texture measurement viewed from the background of factors affecting tenderness. Adv. In Food Res. 14:33.

    Szczesniak, A.S., M.A. Brandt, and H. Friedman. 1963. Development of standard rating scales for mechanical parameters of texture and correlation between the objective and the sensory methods of texture evaluation. J. Food Sci. 28: 397.

    Szczesniak, A.S. 1963. Classification of textural properties. Journal Food Science 28: 385-389.

    Szczesniak, A.S. and E.Z. Skinner. 1973. Meaning of texture words to the consumer. Journal Texture Studies 4: 378.

    Tape, N.W. 1965. Viscosity of potato flake studies. Food Technology 19:862.

    Tiemstra, P.J. 1964. Marshmallows. II. Viscosity and elasticity. Food Technology 18:921.

    Tschogel, N.W., J.S. Rinda, and T.L. Smith. 1970. Rheological proeprties of wheat flour doughs. J. Sci. Food Agric. 21:70.

    Volsey, P.W. and H. Hansen. 1967. a shear apparatus for meat tenderness evaluation. Food Technology 21:355.

    Updated: Wednesday, December 5, 2007.

    • Oregon State University.
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    Texture, Food Resource [http://food.oregonstate.edu/], Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR

    TEXTURE

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    LINKS to Top

    GOOGLE SEARCH OF food texture, viscosity, food shear, food compression, food tenderness, food texture testing, food texture instruments.

    http://innfm.swan.ac.uk:80/bsr/frontend/home.asp?shockwave=1
    British Society of Rheology is interested in the deformation and flow of matter during extraction and processing of crude oil, moulding of plastics, use of toothpaste, spreading of margarine, painting and the lubrication of joints in the human body are all examples of processes depending upon rheological behaviour. Has many links andinformation resources to journals and other reheolotical information.
    http://www.euronet.nl/users/bota/ab_pfs~1.htm
    Fabricated fat-based foods information on the book by Dick W. de Bruijne & Arjen Bot Food texture: measurement and perception (editor: A.J. Rosenthal), (Aspen, Gaithersburg, 1999), p. 185-227
    http://savell-j.tamu.edu/shearstand.html
    Warner-Bratzler Shear Standards A committee was formed in April, 1994 at the request of the National Cattlemen's Association to develop standards for Warner-Bratzler Shear force determinations for institutions performing genetic evaluations of beef tenderness. The standards are available here as either regular hypertext or as an Adobe Acrobat PDF.
    http://www.instron.com/index.asp
    Instron has a texture measuring device. Information and expertise is available.
    http://www.textureAnalysis.com/
    Texture Analysis has information on products to measure texture, tutorials, glossary, bibliographies, and contact informaton.
    http://www.texturetechnologies.com/
    Texture Technologies Corp is the site with information regarding the TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer.
    http://food.oregonstate.edu/references/texture/texture.html
    Selected Texture References
    IMAGES to Top

    Equipment Images

    INFORMATION to Top

    Texture Theory and Discussion

    This is a first draft of a web site on TEXTURE IN FOODS. It is a very rough draft. This seems to work towards getting something started. If anyone wants to contribute, I would be willing to put their page up and/or establish a link to their page or resources regarding texture. This might be articles, commercial catalogs, ideas, images, etc.

    Texture is a mechanical behavor of foods measured by sensory (physiological/psychological) or physical (rheology) means. Rheology is the study of the science of deformation of matter. There are four main reasons for for studying rheology

  • study allows insight into structure
  • used in raw material and process control in industry
  • applications to machine design
  • revelance to acceptability by the consumer
    • However irregardless of the reason for study texture, it is difficult to classify and sharply understand because of the enormous range of materials and food materials behave differently under different conditions. Part of the problem is that to study the texture of foods one needs to have reference or standard materials. If one has a good reference material it should be structureless (there are no atoms), isotropic (same properties in all directions), and imaginary (does not exist in reality).

    If one really wanted to understand texture and the relationships of stress-strain and deformation, they should deal with representative models. Some of these are as follows:

  • Hooke solid (ideal solid)
  • Kelvin-Voigt model(visco-elastic solid)
  • Bingham model(ideal plastic)
  • Maxwell model (visco-elastic liquid)
  • Newtonian fluid (ideal liquid)
    Texture testing in foods is based upon the action of stress and strain. Many of the methods are based upon compression, shearing, shear-pressure, cutting or tensile strength. These are reviewed in the following figure which defines the ideal reference materails in terms of shear and stress.

    Fundamental Testing

    Fundamental rheological test results are returned in terms of kilograms, metres, and seconds. Whatever the method used, the same result is obtained within the experimental error. Unfortunately food is exceedingly complicated rheologically and fundamental testing is often laborious and time consuming and does not give simple answers. An empirical method may provide very useful information even if the results cannot be compared for different methods of test.

    Empirical Testing

    Empirical tests are those tests which have been found to practically correlate with textural quality. They correlate with textural qualitiues.They may include puncture, shear, extrusion tests.

    Apparent Testing

    Many of the tests used in evaluating foods are dependent upon the conditions and the method of handing the ingredients and food. Following are some areas that are of interest.
  • Viscosity is simply defined as being resistance to flow. However, the real question is the type of flow, how does stress and strain impact it?

    • Imitative Tests Imitative tests try to imitate with instruments what the human perceives when eating.
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    Updated: Wednesday, December 5, 2007.

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