Abrahamson, A.E., R. Field, L. Buchbinder, and A.V. Catelli. 195 . A study of the control of the sanitary quality of custard-filled bakery products in a large city. :268-276.

This paper was written in response to members of the Department of Health in New York Cit attempting to control the sanitary quality of custard filling in bakery products. Several bakery products were chosen and bacterial evaluation was done. Recommendations to improve sanitary quality of the products were included. Purpose: Was a 1936 survey to determine the bacteriological status of napoleons, eclairs, coconut custard pies and nesselrode pies. This was followed up in 1950 with a study on custard pastry and their bacteriological status. Conclusions: This study of commercially manufactured custard-filled bakery products of various types revealed that:
1. Unsatisfactory sanitary quality, as measured bacteriologically,. usually results when the manufacture of such products is not adequately supervised by a health agency.
2. When recommended sanitary changes in methods and equipment were followed, products were satisfactory.
3. Estimated total plate counts not greater than 100,000 per g. and coliform counts of not more than 10 per g. seem to adequately serve, at present, as bacteriological indicators of sanitary quality of these products.

Anonymous. 1975. Egg replacer provides caloric reduction, total functionality and convenience. Food Product Development 9(5):12.

An egg replacer called "Second Nature" is discussed in terms of nutrient content and suitability in products. A comparison of "Second Nature", a large egg and a competing egg substitute is included.

Arntfield, S.D. and A. Bernatsky. 1993. Characteristics of heat-induced networks for mixtures of ovalbumin and lysozyme. J. Agric. Food Chem. 41:2291-2295.

Ary, J.E. and R. Jordan. 1945 Plain butter cakes and baked custards made from spray-dried whole-egg powder. Food Research 10:476-484. .

Five dried whole egg powders of varying quality and storage were used to produce butter cakes and baked custards. Several objective and subjective testing methods were employed to determine the differences between dried egg products and a fresh egg standard. Purpose: This study compared the effects of spray-dried whole-egg powders differing in quality upon the properties of plain butter cakes and baked custards. Summary and Conclusions: "Two methods of incorporating whole-egg powder into plain cake batter were studied, and the relation of the solubility indices of five spray-dried whole-egg powders to the relative quality of plain butter cakes and to the firrmness of baked custards was determined.
Under the conditions of this experiment, no significant differences were observed in the volume, grain, flavor, and general desirability of cakes prepared with fresh eggs or with good-quality whole-egg powder which was incorporated into the cake batter either by reconstituting the egg or sifting the powder with the flour and baking powder. The two egg powders having the lower solubility indices produced cakes of less volume and poorer eating quality, and custards which were less firm and less desirable in flavor than the three powders having the higher solubility indices. The rate of heat penetration in baked custards made with the low-solubility egg powders was signfiicantly slower than in custards made with fresh eggs or with the three ppowders having the higher solubility indices. The poorer flavor of the two egg powders of low-solubility indices was more noticeable and more objectionable in custards than in the plain cakes. Plain butter cakes and baked custards comparable in desirability to similar products made with fresh eggs can be made with good-quality, spray-dried, whole-egg powders. A simple and time-saving mixing procedure which yields satisfactory cakes is to sift the egg powder with the flour and baking powder and add to the milk the water necessary for the rehydration of the egg powder.

Baldwin, R.E., J.C. Matter, R. Upchurch, D.M. Breidenstein. 1967. Effects of microwaves on egg white. 1. Characteristics of coagulation. J. Food Scince 32:305.

Bass, F. and G. Spencer. 194 . Semi-micro method for determining coagulation temperature. Food Research(?) :109-111.

A semi-micro method of testing the coagulation temperature of egg white protein is described and the method tested for reproducibility.

Bishov, S.J. and J.H. Mitchell, Jr. 1954. Determination of the solubility index of spray dried eggs. Food Research 19:367. .

This article describes a method for determining solubility of spray dried whole egg powder. Custard quality was evaluated and compared to the solubility index of the dried eggs.

Blair, G.W.S. 1958. Rheology in food research. Adv. Food Res. 8:1. .

This review article incorporates some discussion of the following topics: definition and concepts of rheology; problems of processing and manufacture and cooking, methods of measurements; and psychological and statistical problems.

Results: Tenderness of gels increased with egg white adjusted to acidic pH range regardless of method of heating. No differences were found in relative viscosity, % transmittance, and time to reach 59C between egg whit3es exposed to microwaves while thermal response was prevented and those not exposed to microwaves. It was found that when egg white was diluted with water, there was less increase in tenderness of the gels cooked electronically than in those cooked conventionally. As dilution with water was increased in egg white cooked in the electronic range, the final temperature of coagulation decreased.

Carr, R.E. and G.M. Trout. 1942. Some cooking qualities of homogenized milk. I. Baked and soft custard. Food Research 7:360-369.

Purpose: This study reports the use of homogenized milk in baked and soft custard.
Experimental:"Standard" recipe were used and a baked custard and a stirred custard was prepared. The objective tests for the baked custard were rate of heat penetration by means of time-temperature scale, standing index, amount of syneresis on standing, and firmness of custard as measured by the Curd Tension Meter. The objective tests on the soft custards consisted of viscosity measurements as determined by the MacMichael viscosimeter. Sensory evaluation was done with judges' score sheets for sweetness, texture, color and firmness.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: Cooking time for custards made with homogenized milk was found to be from 15 to 20 minutes longer than for custard made with similar unhomogenized milk because the rate of heat penetration was more rapid in the latter. Judges noted no preference for baked custards with either milk; but, preferred soft custards made with homogenized milk. Baked custards made from homogenized milk gave better gel formation as evidenced by that made with unhomogenized milk gave significantly higher standing-index values both when measured immediately after removal from the cup and when it stood for three hours at room temperature. Firmness of custard indicated a close correlation between both the Curd Tension and judgement of the judges also indicated a firmer gel with homogenized milk. Syneresis was also less with homogenized milk.

Soft custards prepared with homogenized milk were more viscous than those prepared with nonhomogenized milk as determined by the MacMichael viscosimeter. It is concluded that both baked and soft custards made with homogenized milk are superior in quality to those made with nonhomogenized milk.

Cathcart, W.H., W.J. Godkin, and G. Barnett. 1947. Growth of Staphylococcus aureus various pastry fillings. Food Research 12:142.

Cathcart, W.H., A. Merz, and R.E. Ryberg. 194 . Staphylococci and salmonella control in foods IV Effect of cooking bakery custards. Food Research 7: 100

Purpose: Custard-filled pies were used to determine temperatures needed for sterility.

Summary: "Merely bringing custards to a second boil, after the addition of the thickening mix, rendered them sterile of both Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enteritidis with which they had been inoculated.

Baked custard pies, which had been inoculated with Salmonell enteritidis and Staphylococcus aureus before baking were sterile in relation to these two organisms as they left the oven.

Cathcart, W.H., R.E. Ryberg, and A. Merz. 1941. Staphylococci and Salmonella control in foods. I. Effect of ultra-violet radiation and ozone on bakery custard and cream fillings. Food Research 7:1-9

Chang, P., W.D. Powrie, and O. Fennema. 1970. Disc gel electrophoresis of proteins in native and heat-treated albumen, yolk and centrifuged whole egg. J. Food Sci. 35:774

Clarenburg, A. and H.C. Burger.1950. Survival of Salmonellae in boiled ducks' eggs. Food Research(?) 15:340-341.

This article reported data which indicated that boiling time of 10, 11, or 12 minutes was insufficient to kill all Salmonellae organisms in duck eggs weighing 80-105 g.

Purpose: To investigate the course of the temperature in the egg during the boiling process and its connection with destruction of bacilli.

Results: They showed that 10 minutes boiling has the center of duck eggs under 50C. The thermal conductivity of egg substance is slightly less than whatever.

Conrad, K.M., M.G. Mast, H.R. Ball, G. Froning and J.H. MacNeil. 1993. Concentration of liquid egg white by vacuum evaporation and reverse osmosis. J. Food Sci. 58:1017.

Conrad, R.M., G.E. Vail, A.L. Olsen, G.L. Tinklin, J.W. Greene, and C. Wagoner. 1948. Improved dried whole egg products. Kansas State College Tech. Bull. 64, Kansas Agric. Exp. Sta., Manhattan, Kansas.

The baking performance of dried whole egg was determined in sponge cakes, cream puffs and custards. Variables included temperature, moisture content, acidity during drying, percent added sugar and storage time.

EXPERIMENTAL:This compared dried egg products of frozen control 140F, frozen control 140F redried, frozen control 140F acidifed, frozen control 140F acidified redried, frozen control 180F, frozen control 180F, acidified. The Quality of these dreid eggs was evaluated with varing storage and percent sugar in sponge cakes (2-eggs and 6 eggs: volume, compressibility, tensile strength; cream puffs (volume; and custards(curd tesnion and palatability (aroma, flavor).

Downs, D.M., D.A. Janek, M.E. Zabik. 1970. Custard sauces made with four types of processed eggs. Journal Am. Dietetic Assoc. 57:33.

Color, pH, viscosity and several sensory tests were used to evaluate custard sauces made with freeze-dried, frozen, spray-dried and foam spray-dried eggs.

Forsythe, R.H. 1970. Eggs and egg products as functional ingredients. Bakers Digest 44(10):44.

This paper discusses the role of egg ingredients in sweet goods. The functions of eggs reviewed are leavening powder, emulsifying ability, heat coagulation, binding properties, viscosity control and tenderizing capability.

Funk, K., M.A. Boyle, D.M. Downs, and M.E. Zabik. 1969. Comparison of frozen, foam-spray-, freeze-, and spray-dried eggs. Custards made in quantity with processed eggs. J. Am. Dietetic Assoc. 55:572.

Baked custards were prepared with frozen, foam-spray-dried, freeze-dried, and spray-dried eggs. Subjective evaluations and/or objective measurements of rates of temperature rise, pH, gel structure and color were used to determine differences in the large batch-prepared custards.

Purpose: Baked custards were prepared with frozen, foam-spray-, freeze-, and spray-dried eggs. Subjective evaluations and objective measurements of rates of temperture rise, pH, gel structure and color were used to determine differences in the large-batch prepared custards.

Grawemeyer, E.A. and M.C. Pfund. 1943. Line-spread as an objective test for consistency. Food Research 8:105. .

This article describes and evaluates the use of the linespread test for cream fillings and applesauce.

Hegg, P.-O. 1982. Conditions for the formation of heat-induced gels of some globular food proteins. J. Food Sci. 47:1241

ABSTRACT The quality of thermally induced aggregates of the globular proteins conalbumin, serum albumin, beta-lactoglobulin and lysozyme has been examined at various salt concentrations and pH values. The properties of the aggregates were characterized by their dry matter content. The results are given as simple phase diagrams. The following areas of dry matter content were found: solubility; transparent and opaque gels (dry matter content of 5-9%); precipitates (dry matter content about 9). Gels were formed only close to conditions of solubility. Only serum albumin was found to be a protein with good gelling properties. A small gelling area was registered for beta-loctoglobulin, while no gelling was observed for conalbumin or lysozyme under the conditions examined. No common simple physical characteristic of the proteins used could be correlated to good gelling behavior.

PURPOSE: This was an investigation which mapped the conditions required for globular proteins to form thermally induced gels.

Henry, W.F., M.H. Katz, F.J. Pilgrim and A.T. May. 1971. Texture of semi-solid foods: Sensory and physical correlates. Journal Food Science 36:155. .

Texture profile analyses were conducted on pudding, custard and gelatin desserts, as well as whipped toppings and marshmellow creme. Firmness, elasticity, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness were evaluated for each product under compression and under tension.

Hollender, H., and K.G. Weckel. 1940. Homogenized milk can be used for cooking. 57th Ann. Rep. I. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta Bul. 450, 7-8.

Jordan, R., A.T. Barr and M.L. Wilson. 1954. Shell eggs: Quality and properties as affected by temperature and length of storage. Bull. 612. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta., Lafayette, Ind.

Eggs held at various tempertures and lengths of storage were candled to determine egg quality. Angelfood cakes and baked custards were then made with the stored eggs, and quality characteristics were assessed.

Jordan, R., B.N. Luginbill, L.E. Dawson, and C.J. Echterling. 1952 . The effect of selected pretreatments upon the culinary qualities of eggs frozen and stored in a home-type freezer. I. Plain cakes and baked custards. Food Research 17 :1-7.

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the baking qualities of home frozen eggs under various pretreatment conditions. Cakes and baked custards were used to assess baking characteristics.

Summary: "Egg yolks and whole egg magma, untreated and treated with 2 levels each of salt, sugar, and white corn sirup were frozen and stored in a home-type freezer at a temperture of about 0F(-18C). Samples were withdrawn from storage at the end of 1 week and after 2, 4, and 6 months for testing their culinary value in plain cakes and baked custards.

None of the pretreatments of the whole eggs affected significantly the firmness of custards, as measured by the penetrometer, or the volumes of the plain cakes.

The flavor of cakes and custards made from the sugar- or sirup-treated eggs was judged somewhat better than that of similar products made from the untreated and the salt-treated eggs. Products made from eggs treated with the higher level of salt were too salty to be desirable in flavor

Under the conditions of this study, frozen eggs and yolks, with the exception of untreated yolks, retained to a high degree the functional properties necessary for satisfactory performance in plain cakes and custards."

Jordan, R., E.S. Wegner and H.A. Hollender. 1954. Nonhomogenized vs. homogenized milk in baked custards. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 30:1126.

This article reports a study to compare the drainage, thickness, porosity, texture, tenderness and consistency of baked custards prepared either with homogenized or nonhomogenized milk. Additional variables tested were proportion of ingredients, initial milk temperature and oven temperature.

Jordan, R. and M.S. Sisson. 1943. Use of spray-dried whole eggs in baked custards. U.S. Egg and Poultry Mag. 49: 266-269, 287-288.

Karleskind, D., I. Laye, F.-I. Mei, and C.V. Morr. 1995. Gelation properties of lipid-reduced and calcium-reduced whey protien concentrates. Journal of Food Science 60:731-737.

Kato, A., H.R. Ibrahim, H. Wantanabe, K. Honma, and K. Kobayashi. 1990. Structural and gelling properties of dry-heating egg white proteins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 38:32-37

Kintner, T.C. and M. Mangel. 1953. Survival of staphylococci and salmonellae in puddings and custards prepared with experimentally inoculated dried egg. Food Research 18: 492-496.

The effectiveness of destruction of staphylococci and salmonellae organisms during heating at various temperatures of innoculated dried egg contained in custards and pudding is reported.

Purpose: This study checked the influence of temperature and sugar concentration on the survival of both Staphylococci and Salmonellae experimentally inoculated into dried eggs used in preparing custards and puddings. Conclusions: "Minimum temperature for thickening egg, 78-86C., does not destroy all bacteria inoculated into the dried egg in these puddings. However, under the conditions of this experiment the number of micro-organisms was reduced to a minimum and the growth was inhibited in all cases for at least 3 hours. These puddings, like all other cream puddings or fillings may be potentially dangerous if contaminated egg, either fresh, frozen or dried, is used. prompt refrigeration minimizes this danger.

At the temperture, 91-93C, used in the preparation of the stirred and baked custards in this experiment, none of the inoculated bacteria remained viable. Danger of food poisoning from the use of contaminated eggs in such products as puddings and custards would appear to be remote if these products are adequately heated and refrigerated. It is particularly important to avoid contamination after cooking since these products, unlike the acid salad dressings, do provide a favorable medium for bacterial growth."

Kline, L.; Sugihara, T. F.; Meehan, J. J. 1964. Properties Of Yolk-Containing Solids With Added Carbohydrates. Journal Of Food Science 29:693

Carbohydrate, Egg, Spray Drying, Corn Syrup Solid, Maillard Reaction, Sponge Cake, Sponge Cake Volume, Browning Lipid, Custard, Layer Cake, Carbonyl, Thiobarbituric Acid Test, Fat, Protein Solubility, Glucose-Cephalin Reaction, Viscosity, Brookfield Viscometer, Spectrophotometer, Peroxide

Longree, K., R. Jooste and J.C. White. 1961. Time-temperture relationships of custards made with whole egg solids. J. Am. Dietetic. Assoc. 38:147-151.

The purpose of this paper was to report a study to determine the time-temperature ratio required to ensure safety of custards made with whole egg solids in large batches.

Purpose: This study determined the effect of varying some selected factors on the time-temperture relationships in custards baked in large batches. Variables: the amount of reconstituted egg (17.7 and 31.6%, based on the weight of the milk); the depth of the custard mixture in the pan (1.5 and 2.5 in); and the oven temperture (325 and 400F). Summary: "The effect on the time-temperature relationships in baked custards, prepared in quantity, of the following variables were studied: amount of egg in the formula (17.7 and 31.6 per cent reconstituted egg based on thge weight of the milk); depth to which the pan was filled (1.5 and 2.5 in); and oven temperature (325 and 400F). The end-point of cooking was determined by the heating curve. As coagulation proceeded, a leveling of the curve was noted. When the temperature began to rise following this eveling, the custard was removed from the oven. The conditions prolonging the total cooking time and the length of time during which the custards remained at temperatures above 141F (61C) were: using the low-egg formula, baking the custards of the greater depth, and baking the custards at the lower oven temperture.

The highest final temperatures were achieved in the custards made with the low-egg formula, and at the shallow depth. Bread and rice puddings required more heating than plain custards.

Less liquid was drained from the custards made with the high-egg formula.

Palatability scores were significantly higher for the custards made with the high-egg formula.

All custards were heated above 181F for appreciable periods, and temperatures at doneness were close to 190F. "

Logue, Louise. 1940. Some qualities of eggs affecting the gel strength of custards. M.S. Thesis., Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.

Lowe, Belle. 1937. Experimental Cookery. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.

Ma, C.-Y. and J. Holme. 1982. Effect of chemical modifications on some physicochemical properties and heat coagulation of egg albumen. Journal of Food Science 47:1454.

Abstract
Egg albumen was modified with succinic anhydride and a water-soluble carbodimide, 1-ethyl-3(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide. The chemically modified proteins exhibited only minor conformational changes, but were altered in their responses to heat treatment. Heat-induced coagulation was retarded by both modifications suggesting that thermocoagulation requires a balanced electrostatic attraction between protein molecules. Hydrophobicity measurements and pH-titration data suggest the involvement of hydrophobic and ionic interactions in heat aggregation and gelation of egg white proteins. The soluble fraction of the heat-coagulated proteins contained mainly monomers, while under conditions were a gel or coagulum was not formed, the heat-treated egg albumen solutions contained high M.W. soluble aggregates. A scheme for the thermal coagulation of egg albumen is proposed.

Purpose: The reported research wast clearly identify the respective role of various interaction sites in the thermal coagulation process of egg white proteins. Chemical modifications included succinylation and carboxyl modification to define the chemical reaction.

McBride, B.M. 1947. Practicality of using dried whole egg in custards for institution food service. Unpublished M.S. thesis, Iowa State College Library.

Miller, C.A. 1960. Time-temperature relationships in custard sauces prepared in quantity with whole egg solids. M.S. thesis, Cornell Univ.

Miller, C. K. Longree, and J. White. 1961. Time-temperature relationships of custards made with whole egg solids. 1. In the bain marie. Journal American Dietetic Assoc. 38:43.

This experiment evaluated various time and temperature conditions in relationship to dried whole egg custard quality.

Purpose: This study studied the effect of varying selected factors on the time-temperature relationships in custard sauces when cooked to three end-points in a bain marie: the disappearance of the raw starch taste, the first substantial thickening, and a definite consistency. Consistency was determined by linespread. Summary: "This study was conducted to investigate the effect of varying selected factors on the time-temperture relationships in custard sauces cooked to three end-points: the disappearance of the raw starch taste, the first substantial thickening, and a definite consistency as determined by linespread. A bain marie water bath maintained at a temperature range of 196 to 206F (91 to 96C) was the source of heat. The variables were: the batch size (4-qt. and 8-qt); the amount of egg in the formula (9.5 and 12.5 percent, based on the weight of the milk); the initial temperture of the milk before the egg mixture was added to it (149F (65C) and 194F (90C); the method of combining ingredeints (two and three steps); and the interval between agitations (5 and 15 min).

In general, the conditions leading to prolonged cooking times at and above 141F (61C) were: large batch size, milk of a low initial temperture, the two-step method of combining ingredients, and a long interval between agitations. The factor effective in producing relatively high tempertures within the sauces was a short interval between agitation periods.

In evaluating the possible bacteriologic quality of these custards, no definite conclusions could be drawn from the time-temperture data gained. Thermal death time-temperture studies should follow, involving the application of temperatures higher than those used by other worksers and the use of the more heat-resistant strains of food poisoning bacteria in a custard substrate. "

Miller, C., K. Longree, J.C. White.. 1961. Time-temperature relationships of custards made with whole egg solids. 1l. In the Steam-Jacketed kettle. Journal American Dietetic Assoc. 38:49.

Purpose: This study studied the effect of varying selected factors on the time-temperature relationships in custard sauces cooked in a steam-jacketed kettle to three end-point temperatures

Miller, G.A., E.M. Jones and P.J. Aldrich. 1959. A comparison of the gelation properties and palatability of shell eggs, frozen whole eggs and whole egg solids in standard

This paper reports a study which compared the degree of gelation and the palatability characteristics of baked custards made with homogenized frozen whole eggs, blended frozen eggs, shell eggs and reconstituted whole egg solids.

Purpose: This investigation compared the gelation properties and palatability of shell eggs, homogenized frozen eggs, blended frozen eggs, and reconstituted spray-dried whole egg solids in standard baked custard. summary: "The gelation properties and palatability of shell eggs, homogenized frozen eggs, blended frozen eggs, and reconstituted spray-dried whole egg solids in standard custard baked to internal temperatures of 86, 88, and 90C were compared.

Within the limitations of this study, objective and subjective measurements showed an internal temperature of 86 to 88C produced optimum gelation in shell, homogenized frozen, and blended frozen egg custards. With the formula used, it was apparent dried egg custards baked to the same internal temperture were not comparable in firmness to that of custards made with shell or forzen eggs.

Subjective evaluations of quality of crust, inside color, aroma, and flavor indicated differences between custards made with shell and frozen eggs were not significant. For these factors, custards made with egg solids were significantly different from and somewhat less desirable than custards made from shell and from frozen eggs. These results indicate the need for additional study of the concentration of solids, mixing procedure and the end baking temperature of custards made with egg solids."

Nason, Edith H., 1939. Introduction to Experimental Cookery. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York and London.

Payawal, S.R., B. Lowe and G.F. Stewart. 1946. Pasteurization of liquid-egg products. II. Effect of heat treatments on appearance and viscosity. Food Research 11:246.

Temperature of denaturation on whole eggs, egg whites and egg yolk was evaluated using a capillary viscometer.

Purpose: This study determined the effects of heat treatment on liquid-egg products.

Summary:"Denaturation of liquid-egg products is a function of the temperature and time of heating. Viscoisty, as determined by a capillary viscometer, was used as a criterion of the effect of heat treatments on denaturation. It was found to be a sensitive index.

Temperature of Heating:The region of denaturation for liquid whole egg, as determined viscometrically, occurs within the temperture range of 56 to 66C. At temperatures above this range, fractional precipitation of the proteins and a general breakdown of the system are indicated by an irregular viscosity-temperture relationship. Above 73C whole egg coagulates almost instanteously.

In liquid egg white denturation occurs in the temperature range of 58 to 62C. As in the case of the whole egg, the irregular character of the viscosity-temperature relationship above 62.5C indicates the region at which fractional coagulation of the proteins occurs.

The denaturation of liquid egg yolk within the temperture range of 62.5 to 70C is characterized by an increasing rate as the temperature rises. Above 70C coaulation occurs almost instantaneously.

Time of Heating: Viscosity in liquid whole egg increases as a linear function of the time of heatnig, with the rate being more rapid at the higher tempertures.

A linear viscoisty-time relationship is shown by liquid egg white at 58 and 60C. However, the region of denaturation at 62.5C is very short. Beyond a certain period of heating (46 seconds) at 62.5C. the fractional coagulation of the proteins is indicated by a drop in voscisty of the liquid white.

At 62.5C viscosity of liquid egg yolk is a linear function of the time of heating. Beyond a certain period of heating (300 seconds) a drop in viscosity is observed. At 65C viscosity was not linear with time; it increased very rapidly until a maximum viscosity at 200 seconds was reached. A sharp drop in viscosity beyond this point was observed before coagulation occurred. "

Pearce, J.A. and C.G. Lavers. 1949. Liquid and frozen egg. V. Viscosity, baking quality, and other measurements on frozen egg products. Can. J. Research 27F: 231.

Powrie, W.D., H. Little, and A. Lopez. 196 . Gelation of egg yolk. Journal Food Science :38.

This article reports experiments which studied the effect of freezing and thawing on the gelation of egg yolk. The affect of additions of sucrose, sodium chloride and urea on egg yolk viscosity was also tested.

Summary: A study of the effects of freezing and thawing on egg yolk shoed that there was a rapid increase in viscosity (25C) during the first few hours of storage at -10 and -14C. The effectiveness of sucrose and of sodium chloride as inhibtors was determined, and the influence of urea on the viscosity of native and of frozen and thawed yolk was investigated. Paper electrophoresis indicated that freezing and thawing caused electrophoretic changes of the yolk lipoproteins.

Rhodes, M.B., J.L. Adams, N. Bennett and R.E. Feeney. 1960. Properties and food uses of duck eggs. Poultry Sci. 39:1473.

Egg white coagulation temperature, volatile sulfide production and functional characteristics in angel cakes, sponge cakes, meringues and custards was investigated using Khaki Campbell duck eggs.

Sakamoto, H., Y. Kumazawa, and M. Motoki. 1994. Strength of protein gels prepared with microbial transglutaminase as related to reaction conditions. J. Fd. Sci. 59(4):866.

Sauter, E.A., J. V. Harns, W.J. Stadelman, and B.A. McLaren. 195 . Relationship of candled quality of eggs to other quality measurements. Food Resarch :850-854.

Egg quality was evaluated by candling, albumen height, albumen score, color, yolk index, pH and sensory evaluation of angelfood cake, custard and poached egg.

Summary: "Forty-six hundred eggs were used in this study. Approximately half of this total number were fresh (day-old) eggs, the remainder being stored from 1 week to 6.5 months under varying recorded temperture and humidity conditions.

Highly significant correlations were obtained between candled quality and albumen index, yolk index, yolk color, albumen score, and pH.

Thre were highly singificant correlations between candled quality and angel food cake quality as measured by volume, penetration and panel score; custard quality, as measured by penetration, height and taste panel score; poached eggs' quality as measured by cooked albumen index and panel score; and taste panel score of eggs cooked in the shell.

Within the limits of this study, it was found that the higher the quality of the egg as determined by candling, the better the cooked product."

Shimada, K. and S. Matsushita. 1980. Thermal coagulation of egg albumin. J. Agric. Food Chem. 28:409-412.

ABSTRACT: Turbidity was used to study thermocoagulation of egg albumin as a function of pH and protein concentration. Coagulation was dependent on pH and protein concentration. The net charge of egg albumin at the cirtical pH (hT=0.5) upon coagulaum formation increased linearly with protein concentration. The first step of coagulation reaction involved the formation of disulfide bonds and the exposure of hydrophobic groups. During further heating, egg albumin was polymerized by intermolecular sulfhydryl-disulfide exchange and the protein network structure was formed. The high net charge of proteins prevented the matrix from forming mainly by hydrophobic interaction. Succinylated egg albumin acted in a similar way with unmodified protein regarding relationship between protein concentration and the critical pH (hT=0.5) upon coagulation.

Siedeman, M.E., O.J. Cotterill and E.M. Funk. 1963. Factors affecting heat coagulation of egg white. Poultry Sci. 42: 406-417.

Slosberg, H.M., H.L. Hanson, G.E. Stewart and B. Lowe. 1948. Factors influencing the effects of heat treatment on the leavening power of egg white. Poultry Sci. 27:294-301.

Stritar, J., G.M. Dack, and F.G. Jungewaelter. 19 . The control of staphylococci in custard-filled puffs and eclairs. Food Research :237.

Summary: "The control of staphylococci in custard-filled bakery goods is a serious public-health problem.

We are reporting a simple method of reheating custard-filled puffs and eclairs for a time and temperture sufficient to kill staphylococci without impairing the flavor or appearance of the product. This principle of heating foods is old and its public health significance has been well established as, for example, in the pasteurization of milk."

Thomas, E.L. and S.T. Coulter. 1970. Prepared milk and egg custard with freeze-thaw stability. J. Dairy Sci. 53:1520.

This experiment determined the optimum preparation conditions to produce a milk and egg custard that would be acceptable after freezing.

Thomas, W. and M.I. Bailey. 1933. Gelation of frozen egg magma. Ind. Eng. Chem. 25:669.

Tracy, P.H. 1936. Certain problems related to the marketing of homogenized milk. The Milk Dealer 25: 30-32.

Wang, A.C., K. Funk, and M.E. Zabik. 1974. Effect of sucrose on the quality characteristics of baked custards. Poultry Science 53:807-813.

Baking time, pH, color, shear press, drainage and sensory scores were evaluated on five sucrose variations of baked custards.ABSTRACT The pH, baking time, color values, shear press and percent drainage measurements of gel strength, and sensory evaluations were determined on five variations of baked custards. The variations were: 1) a standard custard formula containing one egg (48g), one cup of milk (244 mL) and two tablespoons (25 g) of sucrose: 2) same milk/egg ratio with no sucrose; 3) same milk/egg ratio with twice the amount of sucrose; 4) same percent of eggs, and milk solids as Variation 1 with no sucrose; and 5) same percent of eggs and milk solids as Variation 1 but with twice the amount of sucrose.

Results showed no significant differences in pH. aL color values and sensory scores of firmness. However, from the data following conclusions appear evident. The presence of sucrose in a custard formula baked to an increased temperature range of 84 to 86C 1) had no consistent effect on the baking time, 2) imparted a translucent appearance to the baked product, 3) tended to increase the tenderness of the crust, 4) did not affect the gel strength when the percent of eggs and milk solids was held constant, and 5) improved the flavor when used in a ratio of 2 tablespoons (25 g) of sucrose per egg and 1 cup of milk (244 mL).

Purpose: The effect of sucrose on the quality characteristics of baked custards was investigated. Palatability, gel strength, color and baking times of the custards was studied.

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