Food Resource, Oregon State University

Updated April 2000

Energy, Heat Transfer, Thermal Properties references

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1993 ASHRAE Handbook. Fundamentals. I-P Edition. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 1791 Tullie Circle, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329.

Abbatemarco,-C.; Ramaswamy,-H.S.1993. Heating behavior and quality factor retention in a canned model food as influenced by thermal processing in a rotary retort. Journal Food qual. Trumbull, Conn. : Food & Nutrition Press. Aug 1993. v. 16 (4) p. 273-285.

Alexander, L. M. 1930. A Literature Survey Of The Thermal Conductivity Of Liquids. Part 1. Louisiana State University Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Baton Rouge, Number 34

Thermal Conductivity

Alexander, L.M. and G.E. Schopmeyer. 1949. Yield of edible portion of chicken and various meats cooked by different home methods. Food Technology (Chicago) 3: 263.

Alsberg, C.L. and E.P. Griffing. 1927. The heat coagulation of gluten. Cereal Chemistry 4: 411.

Anderson, R.C. 1966. Oven temperature and humidity control. Baker's Digest 40(6): 60.

Angelotti, R., M.J. Foter, and K.W. Lewis. 1960. Time-temperature effects on salmonellae and staphylococci in foods. II. Behavior at warm holding temperatuers. Thermal-death-time studies. Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center Tech. Rep. F60-5, U.S. Dept of Health, Education and Welfare, Cincinnati.

Annis, P.J. 1987. Portable convection oven thermal efficiency test development. Home Economics Research Journal 15: 215.

Abstract An investigation was conducted to find a simulated cooking load to test the thermal efficiency of portable convection ovens, which would reproduce values obtained with typical foods cooked in a series of commercially available ovens. In an extended survey of volunteer convection oven users, a 0.4-lb loaf cake in an aluminum foil pan, as a "medium" load; and a 1.5-lb meat loaf in a glass loaf dish, as a "heavy" load. Loads tested included sand-water mixtures, cotton cloth in water, starch dough in various containers, and aluminum test blocks, both blackened and shiny. The thermal efficiencies obtained with the starch dough baked in a standard chemical crystallization dish correlated best with the average of the efficiencies for the three food loads. A close second choice for the simulated cooking test load would be either the 2.47-lb or 5.24-lb blacked aluminum block heated for 30 minutes.

Anonymous. 1965. Hydrostatic canning - "Flash 18." Cornell Hotel and restaurant Admin. Quart 5(1): 65.

Anonymous. 1978. Food Services Sanitation Manual Incuding a Model Food Service Sanitation Ordinance, Pulic Health Service, Food and Drug Administration, Division of Food Service, 1976 Revision, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, DC. (FDA) 78-2081.

Anonymous. 1975. Animal and plant health inspection servce, nitrates, nitrities, and salt.

Anonymous. 1977. Temperature indications for distribution. Food Product Dev. 11(4): 104.

Anonmymous. 1974. Litton micro-temp. Litton Systems, Inc.

Anonymous. 19 Microwave oven thermometer Model 5982 Taylor Instrument Co.

Anon. 1972. ASHRAE Guide and Data Book. Equipment 1972. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning.

Anonymous. 1974. Commodity Storage Requriements. ASHRAE Handbook and Product Director. 1974 Applications, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 42: 1.

Arntfield,-S.D.; Murray,-E.D. 1992. Heating rate affects thermal properties and network formation for vicilin and ovalbumin at various pH values. Journal Food 57 (3): 640-646.

AB ABSTRACT: The impact of heating rate on the strength and type of networks formed with ovalbumin and vicilin were investigated at three pH levels. Changes in protein conformation and structure development were monitored with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic rheology. Networks were characterized by rheological properties and microstructure. Under conditions which promoted the formation of well crosslinked networks, slower heating rates resulted in stronger networks but had little impact on the type of network. As conditions were shifted to promote aggregation rather than network formation, the impact of heating rate was reduced so that for both ovalbumin and vicilin at pH 5, network characteristics were essentially independent of heating rate.

Ary, J.E. and R. Jordan. 1945. Plain butter cakes and baked custards made from spray-dried whole-egg powder. Food Research 10: 476.

Ateba,-P.; Mittal,-G.S. 1994. Modelling the deep-fat frying of beef meatballs. Int-Journal Food Sciencetechnol. 29 (4): 429-440.

Awbery, J.H. and E. Griffiths. 1933. Thermal properties of meat. Journal Society Chem. Ind. (London) 52: 326T.

Babbitt, J.K., D.K. Law, and D.L. Crawford. 1973. Phenolases and blue discoloration in whole cooked Dungeness crab (cancer magister). Journal Food Science 38: 1089

Bailey, C.H. and E. Munz. 1938. The march of expansion and temperature in baking bread. Cereal Chemistry 15: 413.

Baity, M.R., A.E. Ellington, and M. Woodburn. 1969. Temeprature effects in use of foil wrap in oven cooking. Journal Home Economics 61: 174.

Baker, J.C. and M.D. Mize. 1939. Effect of temperature on dough properties. Cereal Chemistry 16: 517.

Bakke, A. L.; Stiles, H. 1935. Thermal Conductivity Of Stored Oats With Different Moisture Content. Plant Physiology 10:521

Oat, Grain, Moisture, Oat, Grain, Thermal Conductivity

Balasubramaniam,-V.M.; Sastry,-S.K. 1994. Convective heat transfer at particle-liquid interface in continuous tube flow at elevated fluid temperatures. Journal Food Science. 59 (3): 675-681.

Liquid-to-particle convective heat transfer coefficients are useful in developing aseptic food processing systems. They were determined for continuous flow through a holding tube at 115.5 degrees C using liquid crystal and relative velocity methods with sodium carboxymethylcellulose solution to simulate non-Newtonian fluid characteristics. An on-line tube viscometer was used for in situ estimation of rheological characteristics. Minimum and maximum values of h(fp) determined from the liquid crystal method ranged from 986 W/m(2o)K to 2270 W/m(2o)K, (Nusselt numbers from 26.4 to 54.6). Values from the relative velocity method ranged from 1143 to 2270 W/m(2o)K (Nusselt numbers from 33.2 to 63.1) when using the Ranz and Marshall relation, and from 598 to 1456 W/m(2o)C (Nusselt numbers from 13.6 to 24.1) with a flat-plate correlation. Heat transfer coefficients increased significantly with decreasing carrier medium viscosity and decreasing particle-to-tube diameter ratio and increased with flow rate.

Balasubramaniam,-V.M.; Sastry,-S.K. 1999. Liquid-to-particle convective heat transfer in non-Newtonian carrier medium during continuous tube flow. J-food-eng. 23 (2) p. 169-187.

ABSTRACT: Liquid-to-particle convective heat transfer coefficients (hfp) were determined in non-Newtonian carriers during continuous flow using three different experimental techniques. Process parameters such as carrier viscosity, flow rate, particle size, and radial location were found to influence hfp values. Minimum and maximum values of hfp were found to be 363 W/m2 degrees C and 2010 W/m2 degrees C respectively over a fluid Reynolds number range of 14.5 to 798. Significant fluid-particle relative velocities (0.02 to 0.19 m/s) were measured during visualization studies of fluid flow around a moving particle. The relative velocity and consequently hfp values were influenced by particle radial location and the local flow field about the particle.

Baldwin, R.E., B.M. Korschgen, M.S. Russell, and L. Mabesa. 1976. Proximate analysis, free amino acid, vitamin and mineral content of microwave cooked meat. Journal Food Science 41: 762.

Ball, C.O. 1923. Thermal process time for canned foods, Bull. No. 37, Pt. 1, National Research Council 7, Washington, D.C.

Ball, C.O. 1923-4. Determining by methods of calucaltion, the time necessry to process canned foods. Bull. National Res. Council. Vol. 7, October 1923-Feb., 1924. National Research Council of the National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C.

Ball, C.O. 1937. Advancement in sterilization methods for canned foods. IN "Proc. Conference in Food Technology, " Sept. p. 13. M.I.T. Ball, C.O. 1923. Thermal Process Time for Canned Foods. Bull. Natl,. Res. Council, 7, Part 1. No. 37, pp. 76.

Ball, C.O. and F.C.W. Olson. 1957. Sterilization in Food Technology McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

Bannerot, R.B., J.E. Cox, C.K. Chen, and N.D. Heidelbaugh. 1974. Thermal preparation of foods in space-vehicle environments. Aerosp. Med. 45: 263.

Barackman, R.A. and R.N. Bell. 1938. Temepratures attained in baking products. Cereal Chemistry 15: 841.

Barlow, B. 1913. A spoilage of canned corn due to thermophilic bacteria. M.S. thesis, University of Illinois.

Baumeister, T., E.A. Avallone, and T. Baumeister, III. 1977. Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Bayne, B.H., M.B. Allen, N.F. Large, B.H. Meyer, and G.E. Goertz. 1973. Sensory and histological characteristics of beef rib cuts heated at two rates to three end point tempertures. Home Economics Research Journal 2: 29.

Bell, A.V., K.G. Berger, J.V. Russo, G.W. White, and T.L.. Weathers. 1975. A study of the microbaking of sponges and cakes using cine and television microscopy. Journal Food Technology 10: 147.

Beloian, A. and G.C. Schlosser. 1963. Adequacy of cooking procedures ofr the destruction of salmonellae. American Journal Public Health 53: 782.

Bengtsson, N.E., B. Jakobsson, and M. Dagerskog. 1976. Cooking of beef by oven roasting: a study of heat and mass transfer. ,b>Journal Food science 41: 1047.

Bengtsson, N.E. and B. Jakobsson. 1974. Cooking of meat patties for freezing -- a comparison of conventional methods and their combination with microwave heating. Microwave Energy Applications Newsletter 7(6):3.

Bennett, A. H.; Chace, W. G. Jr.; Cubbedge, R. H. 1970June. Thermal Properties And Heat Transfer Characteristics Of Marsh Grapefruit. Technical Bulletin No. 1413. Agricultural Research Service. United States Department Of Agriculture

Internal Temperature, Thermal Property, Heat Transfer, Grapefruit, Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity, Specific Gravity, Moisture

Berg, L.G. and V.P. Egunov. 1970. Quantitative thermal analysis. III. Effect of experimental factors in quantiative thermal analysis. Journal Thermal Anal. 2: 53.

Berntsen, W.T. and B.D. David. 1975. Determining the electrical field distribution in a 1250 watt microwave oven and its effect on portioned food during heating. Microwave Energy Applications Newsletter 8(4): 3.

Beverloo, W.A. 1967. Survival of microorganisms in continuous HTST processes: an error and additional observations. Food Technology 21: 964.

Bharucha, K.R., C.K. Cross, and L.J. Rubin. 1979. Mechanism of N-nitrosopyrrolidine formation in bacon. Journal Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 63.

Biermann, R. 1988. Thermocouples. What are they? When should they be used? Which thermocouple should be used? ASTM Standardization News 16(5): 40.

Bigelow, W.D., G.S. Bohart, A.C. Richardson, and C.O. Ball. 1920. Heat Penetration in Processing of Canned Foods. Natil. Canners Assoc. Bull. 16L.

Blaine, R.L. and J.W. Peters. 1975. Thermal analysis of rrapid, precise testing of food ingredients, packaging materials. Food Production Dev. 9(10): 26.

Blaker, G.G., J.L. Newcomer, and W.D. Stafford. 1959. Temperature effects in use of foil wrap in oven cooking. Journal American Dietetic Association 35: 1255.

Boggess, T.S. Jr., E.K. Heaton, A.L. Shewfelt, and D.W. Parvin. 1973. Techniques for stunning channel catfish and their effects on product quality. Journal Food Science 38: 1190.

Boggs, M.M., A.C. Ward, C.N. Sinnott, and E.B. Kester. 1952. Frozen cooked rice. II. Brown rice. Food Technology (Chicago) 6: 53.

Bondy, F. and S. Lippa. 1983. Heat transfer in agitated vessels. Chem. Eng. April 4, p. 62-71.

Bowers, J.R. and G.E. Goertz. 1966. Effect of internal temperture on eating quality of pork chops. I. Skillet- and oven-braising. Journal American Dietetic Association 48: 116.

Brackett, R.E. and E.H. Marth. 1977. Heating patterns of products in crockery cookers. Journal Food Protection 40: 664.

Brennan, W.P. and R.B. Cassel. 1979. Applications of thermal analysis in the electrical and electronics industries. American Lab 11(1): 80.

Brown, G.E. 1974. Importance of surface heat transfer during steam heat and heat hold processes. Journal Food Science 39: 1066.

Brown, J.W., L.W. Aurand, and W.M. Roberts. 1961. The influence of different methods of heating on the electrophoretic patterns of whey proteins. Food Technology (Chicago) 15: 480.

Buck, E., A.M. Hickey, and J. Rosenau. 1979. Low-temperature air oven vs a water bath for the preparation of rare beef. Journal Food Science 44: 1602.

Byrne, C.H. 1976. Temperature indicators - the state of the art. Food Technology (Chicago) 30: 66.

Cacace,-D.; Palmieri,-L.; Pirone,-G.; Dipollina,-G.; Masi,-P.; Cavella,-S. 1994. Biological validation of mathematical modeling of the thermal processing of particulate foods: the influence of heat transfer coefficient determination. Journal Food eng 23 (1): 51-68.

This paper describes a mathematical procedure to determine the lethality in a continuous sterilization system for foods containing large particles. A computer program to predict the temperature distribution within the flowing particles and heat lethality was developed using finite difference equations. The convective heat transfer coefficient between fluid and particles was experimentally estimated by means of a model system consisting of an immobile potato cube surrounded by a continuously flowing fluid. To verify this approach, a tubular heating-holding pilot plant was used for processing potato cubes in a NaCl solution. A biological validation of the mathematical model was carried out by inoculating the potato cubes with yeast cells and comparing the experimentally measured lethality values with those calculated using the computer program. Quite a good agreement was obtained between the model predictions and the experimental findings.

Califano,-A.N.; Calvelo,-A.1991. Thermal conductivity of potato between 50 and 100 degrees C. Journal Food ScienceOff-Publ-Inst-Food-Technol. Chicago, Ill. : The Institute. Mar/Apr 1991. v. 56 (2) p. 586-587, 589.

ABSTRACT: Thermal conductivity (TC) of potato was calculated from heat penetration into cylindrical samples between 50 and 100 degrees C. TC ranged from 0.545 to 0.957 W/m degrees C for potatoes (cv Kennebec) specific gravity 1070 kg/m3 and moisture 80%. Experimental values agreed with reported values. TC, k, varied with temperature in a quadratic polynomial form, and an empirical relationship was estimated. A model based on the concept of thermal resistances in parallel was compared with experimental results. These were used in a heat transfer model that simulated potato frying. Measured and simulatead time-temperature curves showed good agreement. .

Campbell,-S.; Ramaswamy,-H.S.1992. Heating rate, lethality and cold spot location in air-entrapped retort pouches during over-pressure processing. Journal Food Science. 57 (2): 485-489.

ABSTRACT: The effects of entrapped air on the heating rate, lethality and cold spot in bricks packaged in retort pouches were determined using silicone rubber bricks (10 X 14.5 X 2cm), with 5 thermocouples positioned from the geometric center-point to near the top surface. The packaged bricks were processed in steam/air media at two temperatures (121.1 degrees C and 115.6 degrees C) and two levels of superimposed air over-pressure (corresponding to 65% and 75% steam). With the exception of the highest level of over-pressure, (121.1 degrees C, 65% steam content), entrapped air volumes > 20 mL reduced heating rates and lethality, and shifted the cold spot from the geometric center. At 60 mL of entrapped air the point of least lethality was near the brick surface.

Chapman, A.J. 1974. Heat Transfer Macmillan, New York.

Carr, R.E. and G.M. Trout. 1942. Some cooking qualities of homogenized milk. I. Baked and soft custard. Food Research 7: 360.

Carrasco,-F. 1992. Kinetic study of dilute-acid prehydrolysis of xylan-containing biomass. Wood-Sci-Technol 26 (3) : 189-208.

ABSTRACT: With the current interest in chemicals production from biomas and in view of the emerging pulping processes, the hydrolysis of lignocellulosics is being considered as a promising industrial approach. Since hemicellulose is more readily hydrolyzed than cellulose, most processes include a prehydrolysis step to remove pentosans prior to the main hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose. However, the mechanism of solid-phase acid-catalyzed hydrolysis has not been elucidated and it is impossible to predict the extent of reaction a priori. Having the goal to design reactors, engineers need empirical rate equations. A series of kinetic data available in the literature have been compiled and different kinetic empirical models were analyzed in order to simulate the dilute-acid prehydrolysis of xylan-containing materials. The objective of this paper is to provide profiles of xylan removal and xylose production as a function of a few process variables such as: preheating time, heating rate, acid concentration, reaction temperature and reaction time. Moreover, the influence of biomass species as well as the type of reactor were studied to understand the different solubilization profiles obtained. Other variables such as biomass concentration and particle size were also analyzed. The cellulose dissolved during the prehydrolytic stage was calculated to determine the prehydrolysis selectivity.

Carreau, P.; Charest, G.; Corneille, J. L. 1966. Heat Transfer To Agitated Non-Newtonian Fluids. Canadian Journal Of Chemical Engineering 44(1):3

Heat Transfer, Nonnewtonian Fluid, Newtonian Fluid, Jacketed Kettle, Thermal Conductivity

Carslaw, H. S.; Jaeger, J. C. 1959. Conduction Of Heat In Solids. Calrendon Press, Oxford

Heat Transfer, Thermal Conduction

Casada,-M.E.; Young,-J.H. 1994. Heat and moisture transfer during transportation of shelled peanuts. Trans-ASAE 37 (6): 1939-1946.

ABSTRACT: A finite-difference model was used to predict the moisture migration in shelled peanuts during transportation in sealed railroad tank cars. The roof of the railcar received solar radiation heating during the day and radiative cooling at night. Energy and mass balances were used along with a simplified zone analysis of radiative heat transfer to determine the conditions in a headspace above the peanuts. The model agreed well with temperature measurements from three tests with an experimental railcar. The long-term moisture migration from the natural convection currents was not sufficient to cause any excessive moisture accumulation in the railcar. The model simulations indicated that the diurnal heating and cooling cycle in the headspace was the primary cause of moisture accumulation at the top of the railcar.

Casada,-M.E.; Young,-J.H. 1994. Model for heat and moisture transfer in arbitrarily shaped two-dimensional porous media. Trans-ASAE. 37 (6) p. 1927-1938.

ABSTRACT: A model was developed to predict heat and moisture transfer due to natural convection and diffusion in arbitrarily shaped two-dimensional porous media. Boundary conditions were diurnally varying ambient temperature on the outside of walls with moderate Biot number. Other important boundary conditions were developed for typical storage and transportation situations. A two-energy equation model was used to allow for the difference between the fluid and solid temperatures and its effect on mass transfer in the porous medium. The governing equations were solved with a finite-difference method in a generalized coordinate system using a stream function formulation. It was found that the energy and moisture transport equations were best solved using a modified Crank-Nicolson method that was developed to control the tendency for instability caused by the source terms in these equations. All of the boundary conditions that were developed worked satisfactorily. The two-energy equation model predicted small differences between the fluid and solid particle temperatures and natural convection only impacted the temperature solution significantly in the upper comers of the porous media.

Castellani, A.G., R.R. Clarke, M.I. Gibson, and D.F. Meisner. 1953. Roasting time and temperature required to kill food poisoning microorganisms introducted experimentally into stuffing in turkeys. Food Research 18: 131.

Cauvain, S.P. and B.M> Gough. 1975. High-ratio yellow cake. The starch cake as a model system for response to chlorine. J. Sci. Food Agric. 26: 1861.

Charley, H. 1951. Heat penetration during baking and quality of shortened cakes varying in pH value. Food Research 16: 181.

Charley, H. 1956. Characteristics of shortened cake baked in a fast- and in a slow-baking pan at different oven tempertures. Food Reseacrch 21: 302.

Charley, H. 1952. Effects of the size and shape of the baking pan on the quality of shortened cakes. Journal Home Economics 44: 115.

Charley, H. and G.E. Goertz. 1958 The effects of oven temperature on certain characteristics of baked salmon. Food Research 23: 17.

Charm, S.E. 1966. On the margin of safety in canned foods. Food Technology 20(5):97.

Charm, S.E. 1971. Fundamentals of Food Engineering, 2nd ed. AVI, Westport, Conn.

Charm, S. 1963. A Method For Experimentally Evaluating Heat-Transfer Coefficients In Freezers And Thermal Conductivity Of Frozen Foods. Food Technology 17:1305

Thermal Conductivity, Freezer, Heat Transfer Coefficient, Cod, Heat Penetration

Charm, S. E. 1962. Calculation Of Center-Line Temperature In Tubular Heat Exchangers For Pseudoplastic Fluids In Streamline Flow. Industrial And Engineering Chemistry. Fundamentals 1(2):79

Pseudoplastic, Newtonian Fluid, Eckert's Consideration, Applesauce Viscosity, Banana Puree Viscosity, Viscosity, Applesauce Thermal Conductivity, Applesauce Specific Heat, Applesauce Heat Transfer, Applesauce Density, Banana Puree Thermal Conductivity, Banana Puree Specific Heat, Banana Puree Heat Transfer, Banana Puree Density, Ammonium Alginate, Thermal Property

Charm, S.E. and W.W. Merrill. 1959. Heat transfer coefficients in straight tubes for pseudoplastic fluids in streamline flow. Food Research 24: 319.

Chato, J. C. 1966. A Survey Of Thermal Conductivity And Diffusivity Data On Biological Materials. Asme Paper 66-Wa/Ht-37 Chiheb,-A.; Debray,-E.; Le-Jean,-G.; Piar,-G. 1994. Linear model for predicting transient temperature during sterilization of a food product. Journal Food Science. Chicago, Ill. : Institute of Food Technologists. Mar/Apr 1994. v. 59 (2) p. 441-446.

ABSTRACT: The thermal behavior of a conductive canned food during retorting was represented using an input-output linear system, with a finite order N, and a time-delay. The input of the system was the retort temperature, the output was the temperature at the thermal center of the can. This model was applied for a typical sterilization process composed of two isothermal steps. The can internal temperature was expressed as a sum of N exponential terms in which appeared the constant holding retort temperatures, the come-up and come-down times and N pairs of heat penetration parameters identified in a preliminary experiment. The model was tested on a potato mash packed in metal cans processed in a vertic still retort. Temperatures estimated by the model agreed closely with those measured during thermal processing. .

Choi, Y. and M.R. Okos. 1983. The thermal properties of tomato juice concentrates. Trans. ASAE 26(1): 305-311.

Choy, C. L.; Salinger, G. L.; Chiang, Y. C. 1970. Thermal Conductivity Of Some Amorphous Polymers Below 4k. Journal Of Applied Physics 41(2):597

Thermal Conductivity, Heat Capacity, Thermal Diffusivity

Clarenburg, A. and H.C. Burger. 1950. Survival of salmonellae in boiled ducks' eggs. Food Research 15: 340.

Clark, H.E., M.C. Wilmeth, D.L. Harrison, and G.E. Vail. 1955. The effect of braising and pressure saucepan cookery on the cooking losses, palatability, and nutritive value of the proteins of round steaks. Food Research 20: 35.

Cleland, A.C. and R.L. Earle. 1984. Assessment of freezing time prediction formulae. Journal Food Science 49: 1034.

Cline,-Jessie-Alice, 1891-; Godfrey,-Rosalie-S. (Rosalie Syena)1927. Preparing and cooking beef. Circular (University of Missouri. Agricultural Experiment Station) ; 159. Columbia, Mo. : University of Missouri, Agricultural Experiment Station, 1927. 4 p.

Coleman, M.H. 1978. A model system for the formation of N-nitrosopyrrolidine in grilled or fried bacon. Journal Food Technol. 13: 55.

Collison, R. 1979. Energy consumption during cooking. Journal Food Technology 14: 173.

Conley, S., C.Williamson, M. Johnston. 1993Winter. A Microwave Handbook. Food News 9[4]:4. [Available for public use] Commoner, B., A.J. Vithayathil, P. Dolars, S. Nair, P. Madyastha, and G.C. Cuca. 1978. Formation of mutagens in beef and beef extract during cooking. Science 201: 913.

Cover, S. 1943. Effect of extremely low rates of heat penetration on tendering of beef. Food Research 8: 388.

Cover, S. 1959. Scoring for three components of tenderness to characterize differences among beef steaks. Food Research 24: 564.

Cover, S., J.A. Bannister, and E. Kehlenbrink. 1957. Effect of four conditions of cooking on the eating quality of two cuts of beef. Food Research22: 635.

Cover, S. and W.H. Smith Jr. 1956. Effect of moist and dry heat cooking on vitamin retention in meat from beef animals of different levels of fleshing. Food rEsearch21: 209.

Cowell, N.D., H.L. Evans, E.W. Hicks, and J.D. Mellon. 1959. Conduction errors in thermocouples used for heat penetration measurements in foods which heat by conduction. Food Technology (Chicago) 13: 425.

Cremer, M.L. 1978. Temperature of spaghetti after heating in convection ovens at service locations in a commissary foodservice system. Journal Food Science 43: 1063.

Crespo, F.L. and H.W. Ockerman. 1977. Thermal destruction of microorganisms in meat by microwave and conventional cooking. Journal Food Protection 40: 442.

Cross, H.R., M.S. Stanfield, R.S. Elder, and G.C. Smith. 1979. A comparison of roasting versus broiling on the sensory characteristics of beef longissimus steaks. Journal Food Science 44: 310.

Cross, C.K. and K.R. Bharucha. 1979. A simple screening method for determination of volatile nitrosamines in fried bacon rasher and cook-out fat. JOURNAL Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 1358.

Cross, C.K., K.R. Bharucha, and G.M. Telling. 1978. determination of volatile N-nitrosamines in bacon cook-out fat by nitrite release and thin-layer chromatography of fluorescent amine derivatives. JOURNAL Agriculture Food Chemistry 26: 657.

Datta,-A.K. 1990. On the theoretical basis of the asymptotic semilogarithmic heat penetration curves used in food processing. Journal Food Eng. Essex : Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. 1990. v. 12 (3) p. 177-190.

ABSTRACT: To characterize heat penetration curves in food processing, 'f' and 'j' values are generally used for conduction as well as convection heating. Such asymptotic semilogarithmic time-temperature relations have been mathematically proven only for the restricted cases of conduction heating in regular geometries and for forced convection heating. This study mathematically justifies and interprets such approximation in the case of conduction heating in arbitrary shapes. In the case of natural convection heating, the complicated nature of the governing equations and the flow instabilities are discussed and it is concluded that such a semilogarithmic time-temperature relation is unlikely from physical as well as mathematical considerations, although, both the theoretical (numerical) solution as well as the experimental data for the natural convection heating can be empirically approximated to such a semilogarithmic form over small ranges of processing time for practical purposes. .

Datta, A.K. and A.A. Teixeira. 1987. Numerical modeling of natural convection heating in canned foods. Trans. ASAE 30(5): 1542- 1551.

Datta, A.K. and A.A. teixeira. 1988. Numerically predicted transient temperature and velocity profiles during natural convection heating of canned liquid foods. Journal Food Science 53(1): 191-196.

Datta, A.K., A,A, Teixeira and J.E. Manson. 1986. Computer-based retort control logic for on-line correction of process deviations. Journal Food Science 51(2) 480-483, 507.

De-Alwis,-A.A.P.; Fryer,-P.J. 1990. The use of direct resistance heating in the food industry. Journal Food Eng. 11 (1): 3-27.

ABSTRACT: Direct resistance heating (DRH) offers the chance to process solid and liquid foods at the same rate, avoiding the delay due to thermal conduction which prevents the use of HTST technologies on particulate foods. The attempts to exploit the advantages of DRH in food processing over the last century are reviewed. A successful DRH unit requires non-contaminating electrodes which have a good contact with the food material, control of the food heating rate and, if sterilisation is required, an efficient aseptic packaging process. Recent developments in these three areas mean that the advantages of direct resistance heating can now be commercially exploited.

De Loor, G.P. and F.W. Meijboom. 1966. The dielectric constant of foods and other materials with high water contents at microwave frequencies. Journal Food Technology 1: 313-322.

Decareau, R.V. 1974. Microwave meat roasting. Microwave Energy Applications Newsletter 7(4):3.

Deethardt, D., W. Costello, and K.C. Schneider. 1973. Effect of electronic, convection and conventional oven roasting on the acceptability of pork loin roasts. Journal Food Science 38: 1076.

Denton, M.C. 1922. Internal temperatures of foods during cooking. Journal Home Economics 14: 579.

Denton, M.C. 1920. For the Homemaker. General rules for choosing oven temperatures. Journal Home Economics 16: 541-545. Dexter, J.E. and R.R. Matsuo. 1979. Changes in spaghetti protein solubility during cooking. Cereal Chemistry 56: 394.

Dickerson, R. W. Jr. 1965. An Apparatus For The Measurement Of Thermal Diffusivity Of Foods. Food Technology 19(5):880

Thermal Diffusivity, Chicken A La King, Chicken

Dickerson, R.W. Jr. 1977. Relationships between water content, enthalpy, specific heat and thermal diffusivity of foods. ASHRAE Trans. 83(1): 525.

Dickerson, R.W. Jr. and R.B. Read Jr. 1975. Thermal diffusivity of meats. ASHRAE Transactions 81(1): 356.

Dickerson, R. W. Jr.; Read, R. B. Jr. 1968. Calculation And Measurement Of Heat Transfer In Foods. Food Technology 22:1533

Donovan, J.W. 1977. A study of the baking process by differential scanning calorimetry. J. Sci. Food Agric. 28: 571.

Duckworth, R.B. 1971. Differential thermal analysis of frozen food systems. I. The determinatio of unfreezable water. Journal Food Technology 6: 317.

Dunn, N.A. and J.L. Heath. 1979. Effect of microwave energy on poultry tenderness. Journal Food Science 44: 339.

Dwivedi, B.K. 1975 Meat flavor. Critical Reviews Food Technol. 5: 487.

Earle, R.L. and A.K. Fleming. 1967. Cooling and freezing of lamb and mutton carcasses. 1. Cooling and freezing rates in legs. Food Technology (Chicago) 21: 79.

Ecklund, O.F. 1949. Apparatus for the measurement of the rate of heat penetration in canned foods. Food Technology (Chicago) 3> 231.

Ecklund, O.F. 1956. Correction factors for heat penetration thermocouples. Food Technology (Chicago) 10: 43.

Engler, P.P. and J.A. Bowers. 1975. Eating quality and thiamin retention of turkey breast muscle roasted and "slow-cooked" from frozen and thawed states. Home Economics Research Journal 4: 27.

Engler, P.P. and J.A. Bowers. 1975. Vitamin B6 content of turkey cooked from frozen, partially frozen and thawed states. Journal Food Science 40: 615.

Evans, R.Journal And H.A. Butts. 1951. Heat inactivation of the basic acids and tryptophan. Food Research 16: 415.

Evans, H. L. 1958. Studies In Canning Processes. Ii. The Effects Of The Variation With Temperature Of The Thermal Properties Of Foods. Food Technology 12:276

Heat Transfer Coefficient, Thermal Property, Thermal Diffusivity, Chicken A La King, Thermal Conductivity, Specific Heat

Canning, Thermal Property

Evans, H. L. 1958. Studies In Canning Processes. Ii. The Effects Of The Variation With Temperature Of The Thermal Properties Of Foods. Food Technology 12:276

Canning, Thermal Property

Fazio, T., R.H. White, L.R. dusold, and J.W. Howard. 1973. Nitrosopyrrolidine in cooked bacon. JOURNAL Am. Assoc. Agric. Chem. 56: 919.

Fennema, O.; Powrie, W. D. 1964. Fundamentals Of Low-Temperature Food Preservation. Advances In Food Research 13:295.

P> Fernandez-Martin, F. and Montes, F. 1977. Thermal conductivity of creams. Journal Dairy Research 44: 103.
Fitch, A.W. 1935. A new thermal conductivity apparatus. The American Physics Teacher, Vol. 3.
Franca,-A. 1993Winter. Error estimation for finite element analysis of heat transfer problems. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng. Winter 1993. (933572) 16 p. Frazier, W.C. and D.C. Westhoff. 1978. Food Microbiology 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Funk, K., P.J. Aldrich, and T.F. Irmiter. 1968. Rate of temperature rise, physical and chemical properties of ground beef cylinders fabricated from selected muscles of the round. 3. Effect of surface fat. Food Technology (Chicago) 21: 779.
Funk, K., P.J. Aldrich, and T.F. Irmiter. 1968. Rate of temerature rise, physical and chemical properties of ground beef cylinders fabricated from selected muscles of the round. 2. Effect of bone. Food Technology (Chicago) 22: 11183.
Funk, K., P.J. Aldrich, and T.F. Irmiter. 1968. Rate of temperature rise, physical and chemical properties of gorund beef cylinders fabricated from selected muscles of the round. 4. Effect of surface connective tissue. Food Technology (Chicago) 22: 1589.
Gainer, J.M., G.F. Stewart, and B. Lowe. 1951. Effect of hand and machine massage on the tenderness of poultry muscles aged for short-time periods. Food Research 16: 469.
Galletti, A.M.C., H.T. Davis, E.A. Davis, and J. Gordon. 1980. Water loss, thermal and structural properties of dry cooked potato tubers. Journal Food Proc. Preservation 3: 301.
Gane, R. 1936. Thermal conductivity of the tissue of fruits. Ann. Rept. Food Investigators Board Great Brit. 211.
Garey, J.G. and M.D. Simko. 1987November. Adherence to time and temperature standards and food acceptability. J. Am. Dietetic Assoc. 87(11): 1513.

Freezing Rate, Thawing Rate, Ice Crystal Growth, Specific Heat, Density, Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity, Heat Transfer

Purpose/Objectives: to determine standards for food times and temperatures and amount of food consumed.

Gill,-T.A.; Thompson,-J.W.; LeBlanc,-G.; Lawrence,-R. 1989. Computerized control strategies for a steam retort. Journal Food Eng. Essex : Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. 1989. v. 10 (2) p. 135-154.

ABSTRACT: The present study considered the application of on-line computer data acquisition and control to the thermal processing of foods in hermetically sealed containers. A pilot-scale steam retort was fitted with a control system based on a desk-top computer. Under computer control, the retort could be operated conventionally as a series of timed sequential process steps or the process time could be based on a target lethality defined by the operator. In the latter case, feed-forward prediction of the cooling period lethality was used. One control program was based upon thermocouple data derived from test cans. The lethalities determined in real time were compared with those derived numerically by simulating heat penetration by the method of finite differences. The two control programs (thermo-couple-in-can and numerical) were compared for their ability to respond to process deviations. The statistical aspects of computerized retort control were also examined .

Glover, E.E., J.C. Forrest, H.R. Johnson, V.D. Bramblett, M.D. Judge. 1977. Palatability and cooking characteistics of mechanically tenderized beef. Journal Food Science 42: 871.

Godsalve, E.W., E.A. Davis, J. Gordon. and H.T. Davis. 1977. Water loss rates and temperature profiles of dry cooked bovine muscle. Journal Food Science 42: 1038.

Goldblith, S.A. 1974. Dielectric properties of foods and their importance in processing with microwave energy. Microwave Energy Appl. Newsl. 7(3):9.

Goldblith, S.A. 1971. A condensed history of the science and technology of thermal processing. Part 1. Food Technology 25: 1256.

Goldblith, S.A. 1972January. A condensed history of The science and technology of thermal processing. Part 2. Food Technology 26(1): 64.

GRAVES, R. 1987. DETERMINATION OF THE STERILIZING VALUE (FO) REQUIREMENT FOR LOW ACID CANNED FOODS. PRESENTATION TO INST. THERMAL PROCESS SPEC. ANNU. CONF. NOV. 4-6, WASHINGTON, D.C. Gullett, E.A. and B. Donaldson. 1967. Factors affecting the rate of cooling of cornstarch-thickened mixtures. Journal American Dietetic Association 50: 297.

Gordon, J., E.A. Davis, and E.M. Timms. 1979. Water-loss rates and temperture profiles of cakes of different starch content baked in a controlled environment oven. Cereal Chemistry 56: 50.

Gough, B.M., M.E. Whitehouse, and C.T. Greenwood. 1978. The role and function of chlorine in the preparation of high-ratio cake flour. Critical Reviews Food Sci. Nutr. 190(1): 91.

Griswold, R.M. 1940. Palatability and color of potatoes bought on a retail market. Food Research 5: 281.

Griswold, R.M. 1955. The effect of different methods of cooking beef round of commercial and prime grades. I. Palatability and shear values. Food Research 20: 160.

Gross, C.E., C. Vinton, and Stumbo, C.R. 1946. Bacteriological studies relating to thermal processing of canned meats. VI Thermal death-time curve for spores of test putrefactive anaerobe in meat. Food Research 11: 411.

Guariguata, C., J.A. Barreiro, and G. Guariguata. 1979. analysis of continuous sterilization processes for Bingham plastic fluids in laminar flow. Journal Food Science 44: 905.

Halick, J.V. and V.J. Kelly. 1959. Gelatinization and pasting characteristics of rice varieties as related to cooking behavior. Cereal Chemistry 36: 91.

Halperin, K. 1989. The materials science of the common kitchen pot. Journal Mater. Educ. 11: 385-395.

Hansen, D.W. 1978. "microwaving"- a new cooking term. Microwave Energy Applications Newsletter 11(6): 14.

Hanson, H.L., G.F. Stewart, and B. Lowe. 1942. Palatability and histological changes occurring in New York dressed broilers held at 1.7C (35F). Food Research 7: 148.

Harrel, C.G. and R.J. Thelan. 1959. Compilers Conversion Factors and Technical Data for the Food Inudstry, 6th ed. Burgess Publications, Minneapolis, 468.

Harris, R.S. and E. Karmas. 1975. Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing AVI Publishing, Westport, Conn.

Harris, H. and D.P. Smith. 1974. A universal scale for heating food portions in microwave ovens. Microwave Energy Applications Newsletter 7(1): 9.

Harrison, D.L., J.A. Bowers, L.L. Anderson, H.J. Tuma, and D.H. Kroph. 1970. Effect of aging on palatability and selected related characteristics of pork loin. Journal Food

Science 35: 292. Hatfield, H. S.; Pugh, L. G. C. 1951, November 24. Thermal Conductivity Of Human Fat And Muscle. Nature 168(4282):918

Thermal Conductivity, Human, Fat, Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Conductivity, Beef, Meat, Fat, Thermal Conductivity, Beef, Meat, Thermal Conductivity

Hay, P.P., D.L. Harrison, and G.E. Vail. 1953. Effects of a meat tenderizer on less tender cuts of beef cooked by four methods. Food Technology (Chicago) 7: 217.

Hayakawa, K. I. 1967. Computers In The Food Industry. Part 2. Development Of A New Method. Food Technology 21:213

Hayakawa, K. 1969. Estimating the central temperatures of canned food during the inital heating or cooling period of heat process. Food Technology (Chicago) 23: 1473.

Hayakawa, K.I. and C.O. Ball. 1971. Theoretical formulas for temperatures in cans of solid food and for evaluating various heat processes. Journal Food Science 36: 306.

Hayakawa, K.I. 1974. Response charts for estimating tempertures in cylindrical cans of solid food subjected to time variable processing temperatures. Journal Food Science 39: 1090.

Hayakawa, K.I. 1969. Estimating the central temperatures of canned food during the initial heating or cooling period of heat process. Food Technology (Chicago) 23: 1473.

Hayakawa, K.-I. and A. Bakal. 1973. New computational procedure for determining the apparent thermal diffusivity of a solid body approximated with an infinite slab. J. Food Sci. 38: 623.

Hayakawa, K.-I., G.E. Timbers, and E.F. Stier. 1977. Influence of heat treatment on the quality of vegetables: organoleptic quality. Journal Food Science 42: 1286.

Hayakawa, K.-I. and G.E. Timbers. 1977. Influence of heat treatment on the quality of vegetables changes in visual green color. Journal Food Science 42: 778

Hearne, L.E., M.P. Penfield, and G.E. Goertz. 1978. Heating effects on bovine semitendinosus: shear, muscle fiber measurements, and cooking losses. Journal Food Science 43: 10.

Heine, N., J.A. bowers, and P.G. Johnson. 1973. Eating quality of half turkey hens cooked by four methods. Home Economics Research Journal 1: 210.

Heldman, D.R. and J.F. Steffe. 1985. Educational use of computer models for food freezing process. Food Technology 39(4):87-91.

Heldman, D.R. 1983. Factors influencing food freezing rates. Food Technology 37(4): 103.

Heldman, D.R. and Singh. 1975. Food Process Engineering AVI Westport, Conn.

Heldman, D.R. and R.P. Singh. 1983. Thermal properties of frozen foods. Paper No. 83-6528 presented at Winter Meet, ASAE, chicago, American Society Agric. Eng., St. Joseph MI. Holmes, Z.A. and M. Woodburn. 1981. Heat transfer and temperature of foods during processing. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 14:231. Hendrickx, M., G. Maesmans, S. De Cordt, J. Noronha, A. Van Loey, and P. Tobback. 1995. Evaluation of the integrated time-temperature effect in thermal processing of foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 35(3):231-262. Hermansson, A.M. and C. Akesson. 1975. Functional properties of added proteins correlated with properties of meat systems. Effect of concentration and temperature on water-binding properties of model meat systems. Journal Food Science 40: 595.

Herndon, D.H. 1971. Population distribution of heat rise curves as a significant variable in heat sterilization process calculations. Journal Food Science 36: 299.

Hill, J. E.; Leitman, J. D.; Sunderland, J. E. 1967. Thermal Conductivity Of Various Meats. Food Technology 21(8):91(1143)

Computer, Thermal Conductivity, Heat Transfer, Thermal Processing

Thermal Conductivity, Beef, Pork, Lamb Leg, Veal, Leg, Moisture, Beef, Grade

Hitchocck, M.J. 1967. Heat transfer from the surface of prepared food held in volume under controlled environmental conditions. Ph.D. thesis. University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Hodson, A.Z. 1941. Effect of cooking on riboflavin content of chicken meat. Food Research 6: 175.

Hoffert, E., A.R. Plagge, B. Lowe and G.F. Stewart. 1952. The defrosting method and palabability of poultry. Food Technology (Chicago) 6: 337.

Hoke, I.M., B.K. McGeary, and M.K. Kleeve. 1967. Effect of internal and oven temperatures on eating quality of light and dark meat turkey roasts. Food Technology (Chicago) 21: 773.

Holdsworth, S.D. 1969. Processing on non-Newtonian foods. Process Biochemistry 4(10):15.

Hollender, H. and K.G. Weckel. 1941. Stability of homogenized milk in cookery practice. Food Research 6: 335.

Holmes, Z.A. 1972. Thermal Conductivity and Related Properties of Heated Ground Pectoral Turkey Muscles, PhD thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Holmes, Z.A. 1978. Bibliography of Selected References on Beef, American Dietetic Association, 430 N. Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Ill.

Holmes, Z.A. and M. Woodburn. 1981. Heat transfer and temperature of foods during processing. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 14:231.

Holmes, Z.A., J.R. Bowers, and G.E. Goertz. 1966. Effect of internal temperture on eating quality of pork chops. II. Broiling. Journal American Dietetic Assoc. 48: 121.

Hoseney, R.C., W.A. Atwell, and D.R. Lineback. 1977. Scanning electron microscopy of starch isolated from baked products. Cereal Foods World 22: 56.

Hoseney, R.C. 19 . Component interaction during heating and storage of baked products. Chemistry and Physics of Baking. p. 216-235.

Hostetler, R.L., T.R. Dutson, and Z.L. Carpenter. 1976. Effect of varying final internal temperature on shear values and sensory scores of muscles from carcasses suspended by two methods. Journal Food Science 41: 421.

Hoyem, T. and O. Kvale. 1977. Physical, Chemical and Biological Changes in Food Caused by Thermal Processing. Applied Science Publ., London.

Hsieh, F.-H., K. Acott, and T.P. Labuza. 1976. Death kinetics of pathogens in a pasta product. Journal Food Science 41: 516.

Huang,-E.; Mittal,-G.S. 1995. Meatball cooking--modeling and simulation. Journal Food eng. 24 (1): 87-100.

ABSTRACT: Abstract: Mathematical models were developed to predict the temperature and mass histories of meatballs (4.7 cm diameter, 60 g) during forced convection baking, natural convection baking (broiling), and boiling. The finite difference method was used to solve the simultaneous heat and moisture transfer equations using constant transport properties and the continuous system modeling program (CSMP). Surface heat transfer coefficients were determined by the transient temperature measurement method, with values of 23.0, 9.0, and 4518 W/m2 K, respectively, for forced convection baking, natural convection baking (broiling), and boiling. Thermal and moisture diffusivity values for meatball cooking processes were estimated from the experimental data by minimizing the root-mean-square of deviations between the observed and predicted temperature and moisture histories. The thermal diffusivity values were 1.8 X 10-7, 1.9 X 10-7, and 1.6 X 10-7 m2/s for meatball cooking during forced convection baking, natural convection baking, and boiling, respectively. Moisture diffusivities of the meatball for the first two processes were 3.9 X 10-8 and 2.5 X 10-8 m2/s, respectively. The average root-mean-square of deviations between the observed and predicted temperature histories (2-90 degrees C) ranged from 3.0 to 5.1 degrees C for the cooking processes, and between the observed and predicted meatball mass, accounted for the moisture loss only, ranged from 0.04 to 0.19 g.

Hurwicz, H. and R.G. Tischer. 1956. Heat processing of beef. Part VI. Thermal diffusivity and "slopes" of heating and cooling curves for the high-temeprature process. Food Research 21: 147.

Hussemann, D.L. and M.A. Wallace. 1951. Studies on the possibility of the transmission of salmonella by cooked fowl. Food Research 16: 89.

Hutchinson, P.E., F. Baiocchi, and A.J. Del Vecchio. 1977. Effect of emulsifiers on the texture of cookies. Journal Food Science 42: 399.

Hwang, M.P. and K.-I. Hayakawa. 1979. A specific heat calorimeter for foods. Journal Food Science 44: 435. Irmiter, T.F., P.J. Aldrich, and K. Funk. 1967. Rate of temperature rise, physical and chemical properties of ground beef cylinders fabricated from selected muscles of the round. 1. Effect of fat content. Food Technology (Chicago) 21: 779.

James, S.J. and D.N. Rhodes. 1978. Cooking beef joints from the frozen or thawed state. Journal Science Food Agriculture 29: 187.

Janicki, L.J. and H. Appledorf. 1974. Effect of broiling, grill frying and microwave cooking on moisture, some lipid components and total fatty acids of ground beef. Journal Food Science 39: 715.

Jayas,-D.S.; Alagusundaram,-K.; Shunmugam,-G.; Muir,-W.E.; White,-N.D.G. 1992. Simulation of temperatures in stored bulks of wheat using a three-dimensional finite element model. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng Winter 1992. (926527) 21 p.

Jequier,-E. 1993. Thermoregulation and environmental influences on energy expenditure of the low birthweight infant. Nestle-Nutr-workshop-ser. 32 p. 61-69.

ABSTRACT: This review examines the four physical avenues of heat transfer affecting the thermal equilibrium of low birthweight infants, and the risk of hypothermia.

Johnson, D. W.; Colver, C. P. 1969. Mixture Properties By Computer. Part 3-Viscosity, Thermal Conductivity And Diffusivity. Hydrocarbon Processing 48(3):113

Hydrocarbon, Thermal Property, Hydrocarbon, Viscosity, Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity

Jones, H.E. Jr., C.B. Ramsey, R.C. Hines, and T.L. Hoes. 1980. Low temperature roasting of thawed or frozen pork loins. Journal Food Science 45: 178.

Jooste, M.E. and A.O. Mackey. 1952. Cake structure and palatability as affected by emulsifying agents and baking temperatures. Food Research 17: 185.

Jordan, R., B.N. Luginbill, L.E. Dawson, and C.J. Echterling. 1952. The effect of selected pretreatments upon the culinary qualities of eggs frozen and stored in a home-type freezer. I. Plain cakes and baked custards. Food Research 17: 1.

Jordan, R. and M.S. Peltijohn. 1946. Use of spray-dried whole-egg powder in sponge cakes. Cereal Chemistry 23: 265.

Joslyn and Heid. 1963. Food Processing Operations Vol. II. AVI., Westport, Conn. Judge, E.E. 1986. The Almanac of the Canning, Freezing, Preserving Industries. Edward E. Judge and Sons, Westminister, MD.

Karmas, E. and G.R. DiMarco. 1970. Dehydration thermoprofiles of amino acids and proteins. Journal Food Science 35: 615.

Karmas, E. and G.R. DiMarco. 1970. Denaturation thermoprofiles of some proteins. Journal Food Science 35: 725.

Kawamura, K. 1980. The DSC thermal analysis of crystallization behavior in palm oil. II. JOURNAL Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 57: 48.

Keagy, P.M., M.A. Connor, and T.F. Schatzki. 1979. Regression analysis of thiamin and color changes in enriched cookies using factorial design. Cereal Chemistry 56: 567.

Kendall, P.A. and D.L. Harrison. 1974. Quality attributes of ground beef on the retail market. Journal Food Science 39: 610.

Keppeler, R. A.; Cowart, D. G. 1972. Thermal Properties Of Freeze-Dried Mushrooms. Journal Of Food Science 37:205

Mushroom, Thermal Property, Freeze-Dried Mushroom

Kintner, T.C. and M. Mangel. 1953. Survival of staphylococci and salmonellae in puddings and custards prepared with experimentally inoculated dried egg. Food Research 18: 492.

Klein, B.P., H.C. Lee, P.A. Reynolds, and N.C. Wangles. 1979. Folacin content of microwave and conventionally cooked frozen vegetables. Journal Food Science 44: 286.

Koga, K. and H. Yoshizumi. 1979. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies on the freezing processes of water-ethanol mixtures and distilled spirits. Journal Food Science 44: 1386.

Kopelman, I. J.; Pflug, I. J. 1968. The Relationship Of The Surface, Mass Average And Geometric Center Temperatures In Transient Conduction Heat Flow. Food Technology 22:799

Temperature, Mass Average Temperature, Geometric Center, Thermal Property

Korschgen, B.M. and R.E. Baldwin. 1978. Sensory qualities, cooking losses, shear values, and B-vitamins, of beef roasts cooked by slow-heat. Home Economics Research Journal 7: 116.

Korschgen, B.M., R.E. Baldwin, and S. Snider. 1976. Quality factors in beef, pork, and lamb cooked by microwaves. Journal American Dietetic Association 69: 635

Kotschevar, L.H. 1966. Standards, Principles, and Techniques in Quantity Food Production. Cahners Books, 89 Franklin St., Boston, Mass. p. 354.

Kramer, A. and J.W. Farquhar. 1976. Testing of time-temperature indicating and defrost devices. Food Technology (Chicago) 30: 50.

Kulachki, F.A. and S.C. Kennedy. 1978. Mesurement of the thermo-physical properties of common cookie dough. Journal Food Science 43: 380.

Laakkonen, E. 1973. Factors affecting tenderness during heating of meat. Adv. Food Research 20: 257.

Lakshmi, T.S. and P.K. Nandi. 1979. Studies on the effect of heat on the dissociation, denaturation and aggregation of sesame alpha-globulin. JOURNAL Agriculture Food Chemistry 27(4):818.

Lane, L.G., G.R. Ammerman, H. Lane, and W.M. Muir. 1979. A comparison of the influence of thermal processing and broiling on naturally occurring and spiked residues of 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane and its metabolites in ground beef. Journal Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 1156.

Lang, K. 1970. Influence of cooking on foodstuffs. World Review Nutrition Dietetics 12: 226.

Lei,-P.K.; Bunn,-J.M. 1994. Evaluation of a solar-driven absorption cycle heat pump. II. Four operational modes. Trans-ASAE. 37 (4): 1319-1324.

ABSTRACT: A commercially available lithium bromide-water absorption cycle air conditioner was operated as a solar-driven heat-pump. Energy from water heating flat-plate solar collectors was used as the driving force for the system. Efficiency characteristics were evaluated for four operational modes: (1) a regular heating/cooling mode, (2) a closed-cycle cycle operation, (3) a latent-to-sensible heat transfer mode where a controlled moisture load was introduced, and (4) a latent-to-sensible heat transfer mode where the moisture load was from drying grain. The system was evaluated for both clear and partly cloudy weather conditions. Coefficients of performance followed a pattern very similar to the temperature pattern in the hot water loop of the generator. The coefficients of performance for cooling (COPc) ranged from 0.55 to 0.80, generally decreased as generator inlet water temperature increased, increased as condenser inlet water temperature increased, decreased as air temperature entering the evaporator decreased and decreased as moisture load at the evaporator decreased except for regular heating/cooling operations. Condenser inlet water temperature showed stronger effects on COPc than did generator inlet water temperature. Coefficient of performance for heating (COPh) ranged from 1.40 to 1.86, generally decreased as generator inlet water temperature increased, decreased as condenser inlet water temperature increased, increased as air temperature entering the evaporator increased, and increased as moisture load at the evaporator increased. Moisture load influences were statistically the same for all four modes of operation and air inlet temperature generally had a stronger effect on COPh. than did generator inlet water temperature, but less effect than condenser inlet water temperature. he latent-to-sensible heat transfer operational modes were more efficient than the regular heating/cooling or closed-cycle modes. Also, it was estimated that solar-driven absorption cycle heat pump grain drying can save as much 40% on electrical energy requirements compared to a compressor driven heat pump grain drying system, 60% compared to electrical resistance heating and better than 70% compared to LPG and oil heating.

Lee, C.M., T.-C. Lee, and C.O. Chichester. 1979. Kinetics of the production of biologically active Maillard browned products in apricot and glucose-L-tryptophan. JOURNAL Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 478.

Lein, Y.C. and W.W. Nawar. 1974. Thermal decomposition of some amino acids. Valine, leucine and isoleucine. Journal Food Science 39: 911.

Leishman, J.N. 1968. Progress in heat transfer- review of 1967 literature. Chem. Process Eng. (London), 49: 125.

Lentz, C.P. 1961. Thermal conductivity of meats, fats, gelatin gels and ice. Food Technology (Chicago) 15: 243.

Lentz, C.P. and L. Van Dean Berg. 1977. Thermal conductivity data for foods. Their significance and use. ASHRAE Trans. 83(1): 525.

Leondard, S., b.S. Luh, and M. Simone. 1964. Aseptic canning of foods. 1. Preparation and processing procedures. Food Technology (Chicago) 18: 81.

Leonard, S.J., R.L. Merson, G.L. Marsh, and J.R. Heil. 1986. Estimating thermal degradation in processing of foods. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 34: 392.

Abstract Breakdown of heat-labile constituents in foods is approximated as first-order chemical reaction, mathematically similar to the destruction of bacteria. Experimental time/temperture histories of several processes were each transformed into a single degradation value with known or assumed temperature-response (z) values. With this simple procedure, processes and processing steps that were major contributors to thermal degradation of desirable attributes could be identified and modified to minimize loss of quality. Examples are given to illustrate the procedure and some of its applications.

Journal Food Science 41: 685.
Leonhardt, G.F.. 1976. Estimation of the average temperture of thermally conductive food in cylindrical and rectangular cans during heat processing. Journal Food Science 41: 691.
Ling, C.-C. A., J.L. Bomben, D.F. Farkas, and C.J. King. 1974. Heat transfer from condensing steam to vegetable pieces. Journal Food Science 39: 692.
Liu,-Q.; Irudayaraj,-J. 1993Winter. Finite element simulation of coupled moving boundary problem in drying. Pap. American Society Agric-Eng. (933576) 16 p. Loey,-A.-van.; Fransis,-A.; Hendrickx,-M.; Maesmans,-G.; Noronha,-J.-de.; Tobback,-P.1994. Optimizing thermal process for canned white beans in water cascading retorts. Journal Food Science. 59 (4):828-832.

ABSTRACT: Based on thermal degradation kinetics and heat transfer expressed as the Ball formula method, a simplified approach was used to optimize sterilization processes for thermal softening of white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris, subsp. nanus Metz., variety Manteca de Leon). Constant retort profiles in a still and end-over-end rotary water cascading retort (Barriquand Steriflow) were used. Quality attributes of beans processed at the optimum were evaluated by a trained taste panel and by a tenderometer. Both approaches could distinguish (P <0.01) between attributes of products from optimal rotary and still processes. end-over-end rotation resulted in faster heat penetration and better quality retention of beans. texture of white beans processed at 4 degrees or 8 degrees c from the optimal temperature could be distinguished (p <0.01) by the sensory panel and by the tenderometer.

Loey,-A.-van.; Fransis,-A.; Hendrickx,-M.; Maesmans,-G.; Noronha,-J.-de.; Tobback,-P.1994. Optimizing thermal process for canned white beans in water cascading retorts. Journal Food Science. Chicago, Ill. : Institute of Food Technologists. July/Aug 1994. v. 59 (4) p. 828-832.
ABSTRACT: Based on thermal degradation kinetics and heat transfer expressed as the Ball formula method, a simplified approach was used to optimize sterilization processes for thermal softening of white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris, subsp. nanus Metz., variety Manteca de Leon). Constant retort profiles in a still and end-over-end rotary water cascading retort (Barriquand Steriflow) were used. Quality attributes of beans processed at the optimum were evaluated by a trained taste panel and by a tenderometer. Both approaches could distinguish (P <0.01) between attributes of products from optimal rotary and still processes. end-over-end rotation resulted in faster heat penetration and better quality retention of beans. texture of white beans processed at 4 degrees or 8 degrees c from the optimal temperature could be distinguished (p <0.01) by the sensory panel and by the tenderometer. .

Long, R.A.K. 1955. Some thermodynamic properties of fish and their effect on the rate of freezing. J. Sci. Food Agric. 6: 621.

Longree, K., M. Jooste, and J.C. White. 1961. time-temeprature rleationships of custards made with whole egg solids. III. Baked in large batches. Journal American Dietetic Association 38: 147.

Lopez, A. 1981. A complete Course in Canning, Book 1. Basic Information on Canning, 11th ed. The Canning Trade, Baltimore, MD.

Lorenz, K., W. Dilsaver, and R. Starkjohann. 1975. Proofing and baking with microwave energy. Microwave Energy Appl Newsletter 8(5):3.

Lorenz, K. 1976. Microwave cooking at high altitudes. Microwave Energy Applications Newsletter 9(1):3.

Lorenz, K. and W. Dilsaver. 1976. Microwave heating of food materials at various altitudes. Journal Food Science 41: 699.

Lowe, B. and V.M. Vernon. 1927. Poultry for the table as influenced by market class and grade. Poultry Science 6: 51.

Lozano, J.E., M.J. Urbicain, and E. Rotstein. 1979. Thermal conductivity of apples as a function of moisture content. Journal Food Science 44: 198.

Lyon, C.E., B.G. Lyon, A.A. Klose, and J.P. Hudspeth. 1975. Effects of temperature-time combinations on doneness and yields of water-cooked broiler thighs. Journal Food Science 40: 129.

Lynt, R.K., D.A. Kautter, and H.M. Solomon. 1979. Heat resistance of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum Type F in phosphate buffer and crabmeat. Journal Food Science 44: 108.

Maga, J.A. 1974. Bread flavor. Critical Reviews Food Technology 5: 55.

Mai, J., J. Shrimp, J. Weirauch, and J.E. Kinsella. 1978. Lipids of fish fillets: changes following cooking by different methods. Journal Food Science 43: 1669.

Maligalig, L.L., J.F. Caul, R. Bassett, and O.W. Tiemeier. 1975. Flavoring live channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) experimentally. Effects of concentration and exposure time. Journal Food Science 40: 1242.

Mallikarjunan,-P.; Mittal,-G.S. 1994. Heat and mass transfer during beef carcass chilling--modelling and simulation. Journal Food eng . 23 (3) p. 277-292.

This paper describes the development of a two-dimensional heat and mass transfer model of beef carcass chilling. The model includes thermal properties as functions of temperature and composition. The carcass was divided into five zones, i.e. round, sirloin, loin, rib and chuck, and the carcass cross-sectional structure within a zone was considered uniform. The model was solved using finite element method. Temperature and mass histories were collected for three chilling schemes to validate the model. The simulated results are in good agreement with the observed data, and the predicted temperature and mass histories within 2.7 degrees C and 0.4%, respectively.

Mannheim, H.C., M.P. Steinberg, A.I. Nelson, and T.W. Kendall. 1957. The heat content of bread. Food Technology (Chicago) 11: 384.

Manson, J.E. and J.F. Cullen. 1974. Thermal process simulation for aseptic processing of foods containing discrete particulate matter. Journal Food Science 39: 1084.

Marston, P.E. and T.L. Wannan. 1976. Bread baking - the transformation from dough to bread. Bakers' Digest 50(4): 24.

Martin, A.D., R.P. Lovingood, D.D. Long, M.I. Schnepf. 1990, December. Cooking sytem interactions: compatibility of energy source and container material. Home Economics Research Journal 19(2): 159.

Abstract A laboratory experiment was performed to investigate the interaction between energy source and container material in surface cooking oerpations as determined by evenness of heating, speed of heating, and heat retention. Energy sources were a conventional gas burner; a conventional electric coil; an electric resistance heater and induction coil, both under glass-ceramic; and a solid electric element. Cookware of thin- and heavy-gauge aluminum, porcelain enamel over thin-gauge steel, heavy-gauge stainless steel with a thick aluminum heat core, and glass-ceramic was combined with each of the enrgy sources to complete a cooking system. A General Linear Models procedure was used to assess statistically the impact of each variable on test results. Duncan Multiple Range tests were performed to identify statistically significant differences between systems. Heavy-gauge aluminum and heavy-gauge stainless steel with a thick aluminum heat core produced the most even browning of crepes in all cooking systems. Regardless of the cookware used, the induction unit, gas burner, and conventional electric coil boiled water more quickly than did the other energy sources, while the solid element and the electric resistance coil under glass-ceramic retained more heat.

Massey, W.M., Jr. and J.E. Sunderland. 1967. Measurement of thermal conductivity during freeze-drying of beef. Food Technology (Chicago) 21: 408.

Mast, M.G. and G.J. Mountney. 1970. Growth patterns of selected psychrophilic microorganisms in cooked and uncooked aseptically procured turkey meat. Journal Food Science 35: 61.

Matthews, F.V. Jr. and C.W. Hall. 1968. Method of finite differences used to relate changes in thermal and physical properties of potatoes. American Society Agric. Engineering Transactions 11: 558.

Mattson, P. 1978. Bacon precooked by microwaves offers the potential of lowering nitrosamine levels. Food Product Development 12(4):47.

May, K.N., P.D. Rodgers, and H.D. White. 1961. Thermocouple placement in chicken carcasses. Poultry Science 40: 1764.

McCrae, S.E. and P.C. Paul. 1974. Rate of heating as it affects the solubilization of beef muscle collagen. Journal Food Science 39: 18.

Melgar, J.V. 1970. The Measurement of thermal conductivity of meat. M.S. thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

Melnick, D. and B.L. Oser. 1949. The influence of heat-processing on the functional and nutritive properties of protein. Food Technology (Chicago) 3: 57.

Meyer, b.H., W.F. Hinman, and E.G. Halliday. 1947. Retention of some vitamins of the B-complex in beef during cooking. Food Research 12: 203.

Mihori,-T.; Watanabe,-H. 1994. A two-stage model for on-line estimation of freezing time of food materials: a one-dimensional mathematical model which has analytical solutions. Journal Food eng. 23 (1): 69-89.

Most of the published methods for estimation of freezing time require thermal properties of the product and any relevant heat transfer coefficients between the product and the cooling medium. However, the difficulty of obtaining appropriate thermal data for use in industrial freezing of food has been pointed out. The authors have developed a new procedure for estimating freezing time, a procedure which does not require the knowledge of thermal data of the food being frozen. The new procedure, however, requires analytical solution of the heat conduction equation. In this paper, a simplified approximate equation which has an analytical solution was derived to describe the time/temperature profile with an acceptable accuracy during freezing aqueous solution of sodium chloride. At the terminating stages of freezing, on the other hand, the temperature profile was found to be described by an analytical solution of a heat conduction equation with constant thermal properties. Hence, a two-stage mathematical model was proposed for freezing which is applicable to the authors' new procedure for on-line prediction of freezing time.

Mihori,-T.; Watanabe,-H. 1994. An on-line method for predicting freezing time using time/temperature data collected in the early stages of freezing. Journal Food eng 23 (3): 357-373.

Existing methods of estimation of freezing time require data on thermal properties of the product and any relevant heat transfer coefficients. This paper describes a new procedure for estimating freezing time; a procedure that does not require the knowledge of thermal data of the food being frozen. This procedure collects time/temperature data from the early stages of cooling, analyzes these data to determine system parameters associated with the heat conduction equation and predicts the time/temperature profile in the remainder of the freezing process using these system parameters. This system has been validated via experiments on freezing fish meat as well as wheat flour dough.

Miller,-K.S.; Singh,-R.P.; Farkas,-B.E.1994. Viscosity and heat transfer coefficients for canola, corn, palm, and soybean oil. Journal Food process-preserv 18 (6) p. 461-472.

ABSTRACT: To understand the influence of frying oil's physical properties on heat transfer, heat transfer coefficient and oil viscosity were measured for combinations of oil type, temperature, and condition. The lumped capacity method for heat transfer in a high thermally conductive metal gave convective heat transfer coefficients. A capillary viscometer in a convective airheater provided viscosity data at frying temperatures. Frying time and oil temperature significantly affected viscosity. Oil viscosities were not statistically different between fresh and 12 h frying oil or 12 and 24 h frying oil, while between the remaining frying times the oil viscosities were statistically different. Corn oil viscosity showed the greatest increase over 36 h and the highest correlation between viscosity and heat transfer coefficient (-0.959) .

Miller, C., K. Longree, and J.C. White. 1961. Time-temeprture relationships of custards made with whole egg solids. I. In the Bain Marie. Journal American Dietetic Association 38: 43.

Miller, C., K. Longree, and J.C. White. 1961. Time-temeprature relationships of custards made with whole egg solids. II. In the steam-jacketed kettle. Journal American Dietetic Association 38: 49.

Miller, G.A., E.M. Jones, and P.JOURNAL Aldrich. 1959. A comparison of the gelation proeprties and palatability of shell eggs, frozen whole eggs, and whole egg solids in standard baked custard. Food Research 24: 584.

Miller, H.L. and J.E. Sunderland. 1963. Thermal conductivity of beef. Food Technology (Chicago) 17: 490.

Miller,-K.S.; Singh,-R.P.; Farkas,-B.E.1994, December. Viscosity and heat transfer coefficients for canola, corn, palm, and soybean oil. J-food-process-preserv. 18 (6) p. 461-472.

Mizukoshi, M., T. Kawada, and N. Matsui. 1979. Model studies of cake baking. I. Continuous observations of starch gelatinization and protein coagulation during baking. Cereal Chemistry 56: 305.

Morgan, K.J., K. Funk, and M.E. Zabik. 1970. Comprison of frozen, foam-spray dried, freeze-dried and spray-dried eggs. 7. Soft meringues prepared with a carrageenan stabilizer. Journal Food Science 35: 699.

Morley, M.J. 1966. Thermal conductivities of muscles, fats and bones. Journal Food Technology 1: 303.

Morissey, P.A. and F. O'Mahony. 1976. Heat stability of forewarmed milks: influence of k-casein serum proteins and divalent cations. Journal Dairy Research 43: 267.

Morrow, L., K. Lorenz, and L. Brenneis. 1974. Effect of atmospheric pressure and ingredient variations on cookie spread. Cereal Chemistry 19: 200.

Muck,-R.E.; Pitt,-R.E. 1994May/June. Aerobic deterioration in corn silage relative to the silo face. Trans-ASAE. 37 (3): 735-743.

ABSTRACT: Movement of oxygen and subsequent microbial development and heating in corn silage were measured over four days at 5, 20, 35, and 50 cm from the exposed face in laboratory-scale (60 X 15.5 cm diameter) PVC silos. In all six trials, most microbial activity occurred at the 5-cm level. Acetic acid bacteria initiated heating in all trials although yeasts were significant in two trials. Bacilli were not important until silage pH was above 5 and were associated with a secondary temperature rise in four trials. Oxygen entering the silage at the open face was utilized principally near the face, and temperatures above 40 degrees C were observed only at the 5-cm level. Heating at 20 cm occurred in all trials, but appeared to result from heat transfer from the active zone rather than from microbial activity at that depth. A diffusion-based, one-dimensional model of aerobic deterioration in silage reasonably predicted oxygen, temperature, and microbial numbers although the predicted progression of deterioration relative to the exposed face was consistently too fast. Model predictions were improved by reducing the calculated porosity for diffusion by 30%.

Mudgett, R.E., A.C. Smith, D.I.C. Wang, and S.A. Goldblith. 1974. Prediction of dielectric properties in nonfat milk at frequencies and tempertures of interest inmicrowave processing. Journal Food Science 39: 52.

Mudgett, R.E., D.I.C. Wang, and S.A. Goldblith. 1974. Prediction of dielectric properties in oil-water and alcohol-water m mixtures at 3,000 Mhz 25 C based on pure component properties. Journal Food Science 39: 632-635.

Mudgett, R.E. 1989January. Scientific Status Summary: Microwave Food Processing. Food Technology.

Muller, E.A., C.R. Stumbo, and W.M. Hunting. 1975. Thiamine: A chemical index of the sterilization efficacy of thermal processing. Journal Food Science 40: 993.

Oxley, T.A. 1944. The properties of grain in bulk. III. The thermal conductivity of wheat, maize, and oats. Journal Soc. Chem. Ind. London 63:53. Murata, K., S. Takarada, and M. Nogawa. 1979. Loss of supplemental lysine and threonine during the baking of bread. Journal Food Sciece 44: 271.

Nakamura, M., N. Baba, T. Nakaoka, Y. Wada, T. Ishibashi, and T. Kawabata. 1976. Pathways of formation of N-nitrosopyrrolidine in fried bacon. Journal Food Science 41: 874.

National Canners Assoc. 1976. Processes for low-acid canned foods in metal containers. National Canners Assoc. Bull 26-L. 11th ed. Washington, D.C.

National Canners Association Research Laboratories in Laboratory manual for Food Canners and Processors, Vol. I, II, AVI Publishing, Westport, Conn.

National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. 1975August. Standard for Temperature Calibration of Water Baths. Instruments and Temperature Sensors.

NFPA. 1980. Laboratory Manual for Food Canners and Processors. Vol. 1., AVI, Westport, Conn.

Nix, G.H., G.W. Lowery, and R.I. Vachon, and G.E. Tanger. 1967. Direct determination of thermal diffusivity and conductivity with a refined line-source technique. Progress in astronaturics and aeronautics, in Thermophysics of Spacecraft and Planetary bodies,?i> Vol.. 20, Helloer, G., Ed. Academic Press, New York, 865.

Nix, G.H., R.I. Vachon, G.W. Lowery, and T.A. McCurry. 1969. The line-source method: procedure and iteration scheme for combined determination of conductivity and diffusvity, in Thermal conductivity: Proceedings of the Eighth Conference, Plenum Press, New York, 999.

Odland, D. and M.S. Eheart. 1974. Asocrbic acid retention and organoleptic quality of green vegetables cooked by several techniques using ammonium bicarbonate. Home Economics Research Journal 2: 241.

Ohlsson, T., M. Henriques and N.E. Bengtsson. 1974. Dielectric properties of model meat emulsions a:900 and 2800 Mhz in relation to their composition. Journal Food Scienc 39: 1153.

Okaka, J.C. and N.N. Potter. 1977 Functional and storage properties of cowpea powder wheat flour blends in breadmaking. Journal Food Science 42: 828.

Oliveira,-L.; Haghighi,-K. 1993Winter. A new error estimator for finite element analysis of coupled transport problems. Paper American Society Agric-Eng. (933573) 17 p.

Omega Temeprture Measurement Handbook. Omega Engineering Inc. Stanford, Conn.

Packer, G.J.K. and J.L.B. Gamien. 1974. Calculation of temperture measurement errors in thermocouples in convection heating cans. J. Food Sci. 39: 739.

Palmer, J.A. and V.A. Jones. 1976. Prediction of holding times for continuous thermal processing of power-law fluids. Journal Food Science 41: 1233.

Park,-K.H.; Merson,-R.L. 1992Winter. Coldest point location in convectively heated particles. Pap. American Society Agric Engineering Winter (92-6560/92-6587): 8 .

Pariza, M.W., S.H. Ashoor, F.S. Chu, and D.B. Lund. 1979. Effects of temperature and time on mutagen formation in pan-fried hamburger. Cancer Lett 7: 63.

Patashnik, M., D. Miyauchi, and G. Kudo. 1976. Objective evaluation of texture of minced black rockfish (Sebastes spp) during frozen storage. Journal Food Science 41: 609.

Patterson, J.M., Z. Kortylewicz, and W.T. Smith Jr. 1984. Thermal degradation of sodium dodecyl sulfate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 32: 782.

AbstractPyrolysis at 700C of a technical grade of sodium dodecyl sulfate that contained an alkyl group distribution of 56.7% dodecyl, 37.5% tetradecyl, and 5.8% hexadecyl resulted in a 65% weight loss and produced 47% of condensable material and 18% of noncondensable gases (largely S)2). The condensable products consisted of the corresponding isomeric alkenes, primary alcohols, and ethers. A substantial amount of the mixed ether, dodecyl tetradecyl ether, was formed along with didodecyl and ditetradecyl ethers. In a cytotoxicity screening procedure using cultured Hamster embryo cells, some of the condensable pyrolyzate components were found to be more toxic than aniline.

Paul, P. and M. Bean. 1956. Method for braising beef round steaks.Food Research 21: 75.

Paul, P., M.L. Morr, L. Bratzler, and M.A. Ohlson. 1950. Effect of boning on cooking losses and palatability of beef. Food Technology (Chicago) 4: 348.

Paul, P. and B.B. McLean. 1946. Studies on veal. II. Variations between some muscles of the hind quarter. Food Research 11: 116.

Paul, P. and B.B. McLean. 1946. Studies on veal. I. Effect of different internal temperatures on veal roasts from calves of three different weights. Food rEsearch 11: 107.

Paul, P., L.J. Bratzler, E.D. Farwell, and K. Knight. 1952. Studies on tenderness of beef. I. Rate of heat penetration. Food Research 17: 504.

Paul, P.C., R.W. Mandigo, and V.H. Arthaud. 1970. Textural and histologic differences among 3 muscles in the same cut of beef. Journal Food Science 35: 505.

Payawal, S.R., B. Lowe, and G.F. Stewart. 1946. Pasteurization of liquid-egg products. II. Effect of heat treatments on appearance and viscosity. Food Research 11: 246.

Penfield, M. and b.H. Meyer. 1975. Changes in tenderness and collagen of beef semitendinosus muscle heated at two rates. Journal Food Science 40: 150.

Pensabene, J.W., J.I. Feinberg, C.J. Dooley, J.G. Phillips. and W. Fiddler. 1979. Effect of pork belly composition and nitrite level on nitrosamine formation in fried bacon. Journal Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 842.

Peters, C.A. and F.E. Hunt. 1977. Heat distribution and heating efficiency in selected pans on conventional and glass ceramic surfaced electric range units. Home Economics Research Journal 5: 176.

Polley, S.L., O.P. Snyder, and P. Kotnour. 1970. A compilation of thermal properties of foods. Food Technol. 34(11):76.

Poppendiek, H.F., R. Randall, Breeden, J.A., J.E. Chambers. and J.R. Murphy. 1966. Thermal condivitiy measurements and predictions for biological fluids and tissues. Cryobiology 3: 318.

Price, C.E. 1956. Thermocouple nomogram construction. Food Technology (Chicago) 10: 319.

Price,-R.B.; Bhowmik,-S.R. 1994. Heat transfer in canned foods undergoing agitation. Journal Food eng. 23 (4) p. 621-629.

An apparatus was developed that allowed for end-over-end rotation of cans during processing in a modified still retort. Cans were rotated in a horizontal and vertical position using a variety of guar gum solutions and rotating speeds. Average values of heat transfer coefficient (h) were found to increase with rotational speed. An increased viscosity caused a decrease in the average h value. Can orientation showed a moderate effect on h. Horizontally positioned cans yielded higher average h values. In 0.45 guar solutions, the average increase in h was 75. A 0.5% solution resulted in a 14% increase in h while the 0.75% guar solution increased h to a lesser degree of only 4%. Statistical analysis determined that each of the individual variables was significant (P <0.01) in affecting the heat transfer coefficient. interactions among variables were also found to affect the h value significantly (p <0.02).

Pyke, W.E. and G. Johnson. 1940. Relation of mixing methods and a blanaced formula to quality and economy in high-sugar-ratio cakes. Part II. Rebalancing the cake formula for different altitudes. Food Research 5: 351.

Quashou, M., G.H. Nix, R.I. Vachon, and G.W. Lowery. 1970. Thermal conductivity values for ground beef and chuck. Food Technology (Chicago) 24: 493.

Qashou, S., R.I. Vachon, Y.S. Touloukian. 1972. Thermal conductivity of foods. No. 224 RP-62. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. ASHRAE Transactions. Ramaswamy,-H.S.; Sablani,-S.S.; Abbatemarco,-C. 1993. Heat transfer coefficients associated with rotational processing of food models. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng Summer 1993. (936052) 19 p.

Ramaswamy,-H.S.; Abbatemarco,-C.; Sablani,-S.S. 1993. Heat transfer rates in a canned food model as influenced by processing in an end-over-end rotary steam/air retort. Journal Food process-preserv. 17 (4): 269-286.

ABSTRACT: The effect of various factors on the heat transfer rates of a canned food model (gelatinized starch) were evaluated during thermal processing in an agitating retort. Process variables were retort temperature (110-130C), rotation speed 10-20 rpm), can headspace (6.4-12.8 mm) and starch concentration (3-4%). Thermal process parameters (heating rate index, fh, and heating lag factor, jch) and the resulting process lethality, Fo and cook value, Co were obtained from time-temperature data obtained during processing for three consecutive runs. Rheological properties and color were experimentally evaluated both before and after each run. Overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) was calculated from the heating rate index using a lumped capacity approach. The study indicated that fh, jch, Fo and Co were influenced (p <0.05) by all process variables except can headspace. uo, was related to retort temperature, rotation speed and initial apparent viscosity. the best dimensionless correlation for uo was nusselt number (logarithmic scale) versus specific apparent viscosity and froude number (r(2)=0.65) .

Ranhotra, G.S., R.J. Loewe, and L.V. Puyat. 1975. Preparation and evaluation of soy-fortified gluten-free bread. Journal Food Science 40: 62.

Rank, E. and I.J. Pflug. 1977. Dry heat destruction of spores on metal surfaces and on potatoes during baking. Journal Food Protection 40: 608.

Rao, V.S., U.K. Vakil and A. Sreenivasan. 1978. Comparative studies on physicochemical and baking properties of newly harvested and stored Indian varieties of wheat. J. Sci. Food Agric. 29: 155.

Rao, M.A. and R.C. Anantheswaran. 1982. Rheology of fluids in food processing. Food Technology 36(2):116.

Ratti,-C.; Crapiste,-G.H. 1995. Determination of heat transfer coefficients during drying of foodstuffs. Journal Food process-eng. Trumbull, Conn. : Food and Nutrition Press. Mar 1995. v. 18 (1) p. 41-53.

Rice, J. 1987. International trends in food packaging. Food Process. 48(10: 86-91.

Ritchey, S.Journal And R.L. Hostetler. 1964. Relationships of free and bound water to subjectives scores for juiciness and softness and to changes in weight and dimensions of steaks from two beef muscles during cooking. Journal Food Science 29: 413.

Roebuck, b.D. and S.A. Goldblith. 1975. Dielectric properties at microwave frequencies of agar gels. Similarity to the dielectric properties of water. Journal Food Science 40: 899.

Rogers, P.J. and S.J. Ritchey. 1969. Sensory differentiation of beef tenderness and juiciness component over short intervals of cooking times. Journal Food Science 34: 434.

Rogers, R.E. and M.F. Gunderson. 1958. Roasting of frozen stuffed turkeys. II. Survival of Micrococcus pyrogenes var. aureus in inoculated stuffing. Food Research 23: 96.

Rogers, R.E. and M.F. Gunderson. 1958. Roasting of frozen stuffed turkeys. I. Survival of Salmonella pullorum in inoculated stuffing. Food rEsearch 23: 87.

Ruyack, D.F. and P.C. Paul. 1972. Conventional and microwave heating of beef: use of plastic wrap. Home Economics Research Journal 1: 98.

Sablani,-S.S.; Ramaswamy,-H.S. 1995. Fluid-to-particle heat transfer coefficients in cans during end-over-end processing. Lebensm-Wiss-Technol. London : Academic Press. 1995. v. 28 (1) p. 56-61.

Saio, K., M. Terashima, and T. Watanabe. 1975. Food use of soybean 7S and 11S proteins: Heat denaturation of soybean proteins at high temperature. J. Food Science 40: 537.

Saio, K., M. Terashima, and T. Watanabe. 1975. Food use of soybean 7S and 11S proteins. Changes in basic groups of soybean proteins by high temperature heating. Journal Food Science 40: 541.

Salvadori,-V.O.; Sanz,-P.D.; Dominguez-Alonso,-M.; Mascheroni,-R.H.1994. Application of z transfer functions to heat or mass transfer problems: their calculation by numerical methods. Journal Food eng 23 (3): 293-307.

Transfer functions are a very useful tool to study linear systems with multidimensional heat or mass transfer and/or with boundary conditions variable in time. This study describes different cases where transfer functions have been obtained solving the differential balance of mass or energy by a numerical method of finite differences. The thermal histories and concentration profiles calculated using these transfer functions have been compared to experimental ones.

Sandberg,-G.M.M.; Durance,-T.D.; Richard,-P.; Leung,-P.H. 1994. Thermal processing canned meat with sub-freezing initial temperatures: thermal and microbial validation. Journal Food Science 59 (4) p. 693-696, 719.

ABSTRACT: Retorting from the frozen state is attractive with respect to product quality and economy and was investigated in canned bentonite and flaked ham. A two dimensional finite difference model was written in which thermal diffusivity varied with temperature. Heat penetrations were completed with initial temperatures of 0, -5 degrees, -10 degrees, -15 degrees and -20 degrees C. In ham, decreasing initial temperatures resulted in increased lag factors (jh) but did not affect heating rate index (fh). In bentonite, fh but not jh increased. D and Z of Clostridium sporogenes PA 3679 spores were not affected by previous freezing. Sub-freezing initial temperatures were judged to be consistent with safe processes if validated with heat penetration studies .

Sandoval,-A.J.; Barreiro,-J.A.; Mendoza,-S. 1994. Prediction of hot-fill--air-cool sterilization processes for tomato paste in glass jars. Journal Food eng. Oxford : Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. 1994. v. 23 (1) p. 33-50.

Saravacos, G.E. and J.C. Meyer. 1967. Heating rates of fruit products in an agitated kettle. Food Technology (Chicago) 21: 372.

Sarkin, R.J. 1978. computerized cooking simulation of meat products. Journal Food Science 43: 1140.

Sastry,-S.K.; Palaniappan,-S. 1992. Influence of particle orientation on the effective electrical resistance and ohmic heating rate of a liquid-particle mixture. Journal Food Process-Eng. 15 (3) : 213-227.

Sastry, S.K. 1986. Mathematical evaluation of process schedules for aseptic processing of low-acid foods containing discrete particles. Journal Food Science 5195):1323-1328.

Schellekens,-M.; Martens,-T.; Roberts,-T.A.; Mackey,-B.M.; Nicolai,-B.M.; Impe,-J.F.-van.; Baerdemaeker,-J.-de. 1994, Computed aided microbial safety design of food processes. Int-Journal Food microbiol. 24 (1/2) p. 1-9.

ABSTRACT: To reduce the time required for product development, to avoid expensive experimental tests, and to quantify safety risks for fresh products and the consequence of processing there is a growing interest in computer aided food process design. This paper discusses the application of hybrid object-oriented and rule-based expert system technology to represent the data and knowledge of microbial experts and food engineers. Finite element models for heat transfer calculation routines, microbial growth and inactivation models and texture kinetics are combined with food composition data, thermophysical properties, process steps and expert knowledge on type and quantity of microbial contamination. A prototype system has been developed to evaluate changes in food composition, process steps and process parameters on microbiological safety and textural quality of foods.

Schiffman, R.F. 1975. Basic principles of microwaves, in Microwave Ovens and Frozen Foods Make Cents, Vol. 5, Decareau, R.V., Ed., Transactions of the International Microwave Power Institute, 20.

Schmitz,-H.; Wasserthal,-L.T. 1993. Antennal thermoreceptors and wing-thermosensitivity of heliotherm butterflies: their possible role in thermoregulatory behavior. J-insect-physiol. 39 (12) p. 1007-1019.

ABSTRACT: Irradiation experiments in freshly killed black papilionids under natural sunlight and minimized wind convection showed that antennae, wings and thorax heat with different warming rates and reach different specific excess temperatures under moderate radiation. While the "low-mass" antennal clubs retain almost temperature of the ambient air, the well-insulated "medium-mass" basal wing veins attain vulnerable excess temperatures after about 15 s when fully exposed, T(equilibr) of antennae is 28 degrees C and of forewing 46 degrees C both after 30 s, T(equilibr) of the thorax is 42 degrees C after 8 min , all at T(ambient) of 26 degrees C and under 54 mW/cm(2). The antennal clubs are optimally suitable for measurement of ambient temperature in spite of being fully exposed to the sun. They are equipped with sensilla basiconica. These poreless sensilla with triads of Type I receptors (typical for thermo/hygroreceptors) and their ultrastructure are described for the first time in butterflies. By scanning the wing veins of free-resting Troides with a calibrated light beam of 1 mm in diameter, a slow wing closing reaction could be evoked at discrete sites along most veins, indicating the existence of a sensory system for increasing temperatures. A heating rate of 2.4-4 degrees C/s of the irradiated wing area was necessary to elicit a response. The applied radiation produced an equilibrium temperature of 39 +/- 3 degrees C at the basal veins A2 and A3 after about 12 s. With axonal filling [CoCl(2)] and electron microscopic techniques multiterminal sensory cells (Type II receptors) are traced and described. Some of them are suggested to function as warm receptors. The different role of the peripheral thermoreceptor systems in thermoregulation is discussed.

Sen, N.P., S. Seaman, and W.F. Miles. 1979. Volatile nitrosamine in various cured meat products: effect of cooking and recent rends. Journal Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 1354.

Sepliarsky,-M.; Levit,-H.J.; Lara,-M.A.; Piacentini,-R.D. 1994. Semiburied greenhouses, dynamic simulation of the processes of heat and mass transfer. Acta-hortic. (357): 135-142

Shankaranarayana, M.L., B. Raghavan, K.Ol Abraham, C.P. Natarajan. 1974. volatile sulfur compounds in food flavors. Critical Reviews Food Technology 4: 395.

Shepherd, H. and R.K. Bhardwaj. 1986. Thermal properties of pigeon pea. Cereal Foods World 31: 466.

Abstract Specific heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity of whole pigeon pea were determined. Batch-specific heat of the grain is a nonlinear function of both moisture content and temperture in the range of 283-313K and 8-26% dry basis, respectively. A second-order multiple regression equation gives a high correlation between the computed and experimental data. Specific heat of dry solid of pegeon pea is also a nonlinear function of the temperature over the range investigated. Bulk thermal conductivity varies linearly from 0.1358 to 0.1862 W/m-K, whereas thermal diffusivity increases nonlinearly in accordance with a third-order regression equation between 9.037 x 10-8 and 9.673 x 10-8 msquared/sec in the moisture range of 12-26%.

Shibamoto, T., T. Akiyama, M. Sakaguchi, Y. Enomoto, and H. Masuda. 1979. A study of pyrazine formation. JOURNAL Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 1027.

Shiga, I. 1976. A new method of estimating thermal process time for a given F value. Journal Food Science 41: 461.

Shin,-H.K.; Abugroun,-H.A.; Forrest,-J.C.; Okos,-M.R.; Judge,-M.D. 1993. Effect of heating rate on palatability and associated properties of pre- and postrigor muscle. J-Anim-Sci 71 (4): 939-945.

ABSTRACT: Precooked, uncured meat is not widely available to consumers, partially because of associated palatability problems and lack of published information on heat uptake under different industrial conditions. The objectives of this study were to determine the tenderness, extent of lipid oxidation, and total cooking losses in pre- and postrigor beef and pork roasts heated at different rates. The muscles were cooked in stainless-steel, perforated heating chambers at oven temperatures of 150, 200, or 250 degrees C and the temperature rise during and after heating was monitored with a digital temperature recorder. Samples were vacuum-packaged, frozen at -20 degrees C for 45 d, thawed at 4 degrees C for 24 h, and reheated in 60 degrees C water for 1 h. Cooking losses, Warner-Bratzler shear force values, thiobarbituric acid values, and pH were determined. The results provide heating curves for pre- and postrigor beef and pork roasts at three oven temperatures. Prerigor samples of both species were less tender than postrigor samples (P <.05). cooking losses were generally low in prerigor samples of both species compared with postrigor samples (p <.05). all beef samples had relatively low thiobarbituric acid (tba) values before and after storage, whereas pork samples had relatively high tba values before and after storage. results indicate that prerigor cooked roasts shrink less, are equivalent or better in oxidative stability, and are less tender than postrigor cooked roasts under the conditions of this experiment.

Siemers, L.L. and F. Hanning. 1953. A study of certain factors influencing the juiciness of meat. Food Research 18: 113.

Sievert,-D.; Wursch,-P. 1993. Thermal behavior of potato amylose and enzyme-resistant starch from maize. Cereal-Chem 70 (3) p. 333-338.

ABSTRACT: The thermal properties of potato amylose (degree of polymerization 5,500) and of enzyme-resistant starch (RS) (degree of polymerization 65) from autoclaved maize starch in a concentrated aqueous system (22%, w/w) were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Heating of amylose and RS in the DSC instrument to 180 degrees C (heating rate 5 degrees C/ min) gave melting transitions at 153.6 and 139.8 degrees C, respectively, indicating disordering of fairly thermostable regions. This heating to high temperatures was accompanied by a partial thermal degradation of the linear amylose and RS chains. Reappearance of endotherms during repeated heating and the appearance of exotherms during each cooling phase suggested (re)association of chains from the polymer melts of both amylose and RS. Association of amylose and RS chains appeared to start between 80-75 degrees C and 60-55 degrees C, respectively. Whereas interactions between the long amylose chains were reduced at cooling rates of > 10 degrees C/min, interchain contacts between the shorter RS chains seemed not to be affected by the rate of cooling. In the presence of the complexing agent L-alpha-lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), the process of association of linear chains was competitively affected by the formation of inclusion complexes of the linear chains with LPC. At an LPC concentration of 10% (w/w), complex formation dominated, and no association of amylose or RS chains was observed.

Silva,-T.J.P.; Orcutt,-M.W.; Forrest,-J.C.; Bracker,-C.E.; Judge,-M.D. 1993. Effect of heating rate on shortening, ultrastructure, and fracture behavior of prerigor beef muscle. Meat-Sci. 33 (1) : 1-24.

Silva,-C.; Hendrickx,-M.; Oliveira,-F.; Tobback,-P. 1992. Optimal sterilization temperatures for conduction heating foods considering finite surface heat transfer coefficients. Journal Food 57 (2): 743-748.

ABSTRACT: Optimal sterilization temperatures are defined as the processing temperatures which result in a minimum surface cook-value after achieving the desired degree of sterility. They were calculated as a function of product heating rate, surface heat transfer coefficient, initial food temperature, heating medium come-up-time, z-value for the quality factor and target Fo-value. Different one-dimensional heat transfer shapes were considered. Compared to the other variables, initial temperature and heating medium come-up-time had little influence on optimal processing temperature. Regression equations were developed relating optimal temperatures with all relevant variables.

Simpson, G.S. and M.C. Williams. 1974. Analysis of high temperature/short time sterilization during laminar flow. Journal Food Science 39: 1047.

Singh, R.P. 1982February. Thermal diffusivity in food processing. Food Technology 36(2): 87.

Sleeth, R.B., R.L. Henrickson, and D.E. Brady. 1957. Effect of controlling environmental conditions during aging on the quality of beef. Food Technology (Chicago) 11: 205.

Smith, D.P. 1974. Feasibility and general concepts of untended meal service. Microwave Energy Applications Newsletter 7:3.

Smith, G.C. and M.I. Pike, and Z.L. Carpenter. 1974. Comparison of the palatability of goat meat and meat from four other animal speecies. Journal Food Science 39: 1145

Smith,-T.M. 1994Aug. Heat transfer dynamics. Tappi-j. Norcross, Ga. : The Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry. 77 (8) p. 239-245.

Spells, K.E. 1960. The thermal conductivities of some biological fluids. Phys. Med. Biol. 5(2): 139.

Spingarn, N.E. and C.T. Garvie. 1979. Formation of mutagens in sugar-ammonia model systems. Journal Agriculture Food Chemistry 27: 1319.

Standing, C.N. 1974. Individual heat transfer modes in band oven biscuit baking. Journal Food Science 39: 267.

Stanley, L. and M. Wallace. 1916. Standardization of tempertures for cooking batters and doughs. Journal Home Economics 8: 429.

Steele, R.Journal And P.W. board. 1979. Amendments to Ball's formula method for calculating the lethal value of thermal processes. Journal Food Science 44: 292.

Stephens,-P.J.; Cole,-M.B.; Jones,-M.V. 1994. Effect of heating rate on the thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes. J-appl-bacteriol 77 (6) p. 702-708.

ABSTRACT: In order to quantify the effect of heating rate on the thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes an accurate means of describing the inactivation kinetics at near instantaneous heating was used. Survivor curves for L. monocytogenes, at near instantaneous heating, were obtained over the temperature range 50-64 degrees C. The use of a linear function to describe the data would have given only a poor approximation of the true inactivation kinetics. With a model based on a logistic algorithm extremely accurate descriptions were made. In processes which had rates of heating less than or equal to 50 degrees C min-1, significant deviations of real kill from predicted kill were observed. Predicted kill assumed that heating rate did not affect the inactivation kinetics of a thermal process. At rates of heating between 5.0 and 0.7 degrees C min-1 the deviation greatly increased as the rate of heating decreased; approximately a 1.7 X 10(5)-fold difference at 0.7 degrees C min-1. Maximum thermotolerance was induced at rates of heating less than or equal to 0.7 degrees C min-1. The increased thermotolerance during slow rates of heating was analogous to the induction of the heat-shock response. The models described in this work allow for confident assessments of safety to be made not only at near instantaneous heating but also when the heating rate varies. .

Sterling, C. 1955. Effect of moisture and high temperture on cell walls in plant tissues. Food Research 20: 474.

Stitt, F. and E.K. Kennedy. 1945. Specific heats of dehydrated vegetables and egg powder. Food Research 10: 426.

Stringer,-L.J.; Diehl,-K.C.-Jr.; Wilson,-J.H.; Hackney,-C.R. 1992. Thermal modeling of a seafood shipping container. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng Winter 1992. (92-6560/92-6587) 17 p.

Stumbo, C.R. 1973. Thermobacteriology in Food Processing, 2nd ed. Academic Press, New York.

Stumbo, C.R. 1953. New procedures for evaluating thermal process for foods in cylindrical containers. Food Technology (Chicago) 7: 309.

Stumbo, C.R. 1965. Thermobacteriology in Food Processing Academic Press, New York.

Su,-H.P.; Lin,-C.W. 1993. A new process for preparing transparent alkalised duck egg and its quality. J-sci-food-agric. . 61 (1) p. 117-120.

ABSTRACT: When fresh duck (Anas plotyrhyncus) eggs (pH 8.0-8.5) are heated, their albumen develops a turbid gel. Through appropriate alkalisation (pH 11.5-12.8), the gel's transparency can be increased. The transparency of the heated duck eggwhite is affected by pH value, heating temperature, heating rate and salt concentration. This research deals with the process for preparing the transparent alkalised duck egg and the change in its quality when stored. If fresh duck eggs are pickled in a solution of 42 g NaOH + 50 g NaCl litre-1 (25 +/- 3 degrees C) for 8 days, removed, put in a water bath and heated at 70 degrees C for 10 min they become transparent, their hardness and penetration increasing with storage. Total bacterial count and volatile basic nitrogen also increase with storage. The total bacterial count and the volatile basic nitrogen were 4.6 X 10(6) cfu g-1, 0.32 mg g-1 when stored at a temperature of under 25 degrees C for 4 weeks, respectively.

Sumer,-A.; Esin,-A. 1992. Effect of can arrangement of temperature distribution in still retort sterilization. Journal Food Eng. Essex : Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. 1992. v. 15 (4) p. 245-259.

ABSTRACT: A general dynamic mathematical model was developed to predict the effect of can arrangement geometry on temperature distribution within cans in still retorts. For this purpose, the temperature variation in the cans was recorded for various can arrangements. Also, the influence of the physical properties of the material and the mechanism of heat transfer for heat penetration were studied. Experiments were carried out with water, peas in brine and tomato paste in no. 3 cans in an experimental vertical still retort. The equations employed for modelling were elliptic partial differential equations. They were solved numerically on a microcomputer using the finite element method. .

Sun,-X.; Schmidt,-S.J.; Litchfield,-J.B. 1992. Convective heat transfer coefficient measurement using magnetic resonance imaging. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng. Winter 1992. (92-6560/92-6587) 13 p.

Sundberg, A.D. and A.F. Carlin. 1978. Relation of final internal temperature to clostridium perfringens destruction in beef loaves cooked in a crockery pot or conventional oven. Journal Food Science 43: 285.

Sweat, V.E. 1974. Experimental values of thermal conductivity of selected fruits and vegetables. Journal Food Science 39: 1080.

Sweat, V.E. 1976, August 9. A miniature thermal conductivity probe for foods, contributed by Heat Transfer Div., American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME-AIChE Heat Trans. Conf., St. louis, Mo.

Sweat, V.E. 19 . A miniature thermal conductivity probe for foods. an ASME Publication 76-HT-60. The American Society of Mechanical Engineering, United Engineering Center. 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017.

Swindells, J.F. 1965, February 12. Califbration of liquid-in-glass thermometers. National Bureau of Standards Monograph 90

Swortifiguer, M.J. 1968. Dough absorption and moisture retention in bread. Baker's Digest 42(4): 42.

Talasila,-P.C. 1992. Modeling MA packaging under varying surrounding temperature. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng Winter 1992. (92-6560/92-6587) 24 p.

Tang, N.y>-A. and D.M. Hilker. 1970. Effect of heating and cold storage on antihiamine activity in skip-jack tuna. Journal Food Science 35: 676.

Tatum, J.D., G.C. Smith and Z.L. Carpenter. 1978. Blade tenderization of steer, cow and bull beef. Journal Food Science 43: 819.

Terracini, B. and P.N. Magee. 1964. Rena tumours in rats following injection of dimethylnitrosamine at birth . Nature (London) 202: 502.

Teixeira, A.A. and J.E. Manson. 1982. Computer control of batch retort operations Thompson, G.E. 1919. Temperature-time relations in canned foods during sterilization. Ind. Eng. Chem. 11: 657.

Teixeira, A.A. and J.E. Manson. 1982. Computer control of batch retort operations with on-line correction of process deviations. Food Technology 36(4):85.

Teixeira, A.A., J.R. Dixon, J.W. Zahradnik, and G.E. Zinsmeister. 1969. Computer optimization of nutrient retention in thermal processing of conduction-heated foods. Food Technology 23(6): 137.

Teixeira, A.A., G.E. Zinsmeister, and J.W. Zahradnik. 1975. Computer simulation of variable retort control and container geometry as possible means of improving thamine retention in thermally procesed foods. Journal Food Science 40: 656.

Thomasson,-J.A.; Menguc,-M.P.; Shearer,-S.A. 1993Winter. Modeling light propagation in cotton with radiation heat transfer methods. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng. St. (931610) 17 p.

Toledo, R.T. 1980. Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering. AVI, Westport, Conn.

Tsen, C.C., P.R.K. Reddy, and C.W. Gehrke. 1977. Effects of conventional baking, microwave baking and steaming on the nutritive value of regular and fortified breads. Journal Food Science 42: 402.

Tung, M.A. and Garland, T.D. 1978. Computer caluclation of thermal processes. Journal Food Science 43: 365.

Turrell, F.M. and R.L. Perry. 1957. specific heat and heat conductivity of citrus fruit. Proceedings American Society Horti. Science 70: 261.

Van Duyne, F.O., J.T. Chase, and J.I. Simpson. 1945. Effect of various home practices on ascorbic acid content of potatoes. Food Research 10: 72.

Visser, R.Y., D.L. Harrison, G.E. Goertz, M. Bunyan, M.M. Skelton, and D.L. Mackintosh. 1960. The effect of degree of doneness on the tenderness and juiciness of beef cooked in the oven and in deep fat. Food Technology (Chicago) 14: 193.

Vocadlo, J.J. and M.E. Charles. 1973. Characterization and laminar flow of fluid-like viscoplastic substances. Candian Journal chem. Eng. 51(2):116.

Voisey, P.W., D. Paton, and E. Larmond. 1979. Apparatus for monitoring cake structure development during baking. Cereal Chemistry 56: 346.

Vollmar, E.K., D.L. Harrison, and M.G. Hogg. 1976. bovine muscle cooked from the frozen state at low temperture. Journal Food Science 41: 411.

Voris, H.H. and F.O. Van Duyne. 1979. Low wattage microwave cooking of top round roasts: energy consumption, thiamin content and palatability. Journal Food Science 44: 1447.

Vos, B.H., Measurements of thermal conductivity by a non-steady-state method. Appl. Sci. Res. Sect. A 5: 425.

Wada, K., K. Takahashi, K. Shirai, and A. Kawamura. 1979. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) applied to examining gelatinization of starches in foods. Journal Food Science 44: 1366.

Wadsworth, J.I. and J.J. Spadaro. 1969. transient temperture distribution in whole sweetpotato roots during immersion heating. 1. Thermal diffusivity of sweetpotatoes. Food Technology (Chicago) 23: 219.

Wagner, J.N. 1982. Aseptic drum processing. Food Engineering 54(1): 120-121.

Wallace, M.J., K.L. Nordsiden, I.D. Wolf, D.R. Thompson, and E.A. Zottola. 1978. Thermal inactivation of Clostridium sporogenes PA 3679 and Bacillus stearothermophilus 1518 in low-acid home-canned foods. Journal Food Science 43: 1738.

Walker, J. 1984June. Gismos that apply non-obvious physical principles to the enjoyment of cooking. Scientific American 250: 146.

Walters, R.E. and K.N. May. 1963. Thermal conductivity and density of chicken breast muscle and skin. Food Technology (Chicago) ,/b> 17: 808.

Wang, A.C., K. Funk, and M.E. Zabik. 1974. Effect of sucrose on the quality characteristics of baked custards. Poultry Science 53: 807.

Wang,-N.; Brennan,-J.G. 1995. A mathematical model of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer during drying of potato. Journal Food eng 24 (1): 47-60.

ABSTRACT: A mathematical model of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer is proposed for the prediction of moisture and temperature distributions during drying in a slab-shaped solid. The model took into account the effect of moisture-solid interaction at the drying surface by means of sorption isotherms of food. Non-constant physical and thermal properties were also incorporated in the model. The model was applied to the air drying potatoes. A finite difference method (Crank-Nicolson) was used in the solution of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer equations at different times during drying. When the experimental results were compared with those obtained from the finite difference method, good agreement was found.

Wasserman, A.E., J.W. Pensabene, and E.G. Piotrowski. 1978. Nitrosamine formation in home-cooked bacon. Journal Food Science 43: 276.

Weir, C.E., A. Slover, C. Pohl, and G.D. Wilson. 1962. Effect of cooking procedures on the composition and organoleptic properties of pork chops. Food Technology (Chicago) 16(5): 133.

Weir, C.E., H. Wang, M.L. Birkner, J. Parsons, and B. Ginger. 1958. Studies on enzymatic tenderization of meat. II. Panel and histological analyses of meat treated with liquid tenderizers containing papain. Food Research 23: 411.

Williams, J.R. and D.L. Harrison. 1978. Relationship of hydroxyproline solubilized to tenderness of bovine muscle. Journal Food Science 43: 464.

Wilcox,-A.P.; Stepanek,-P.J.; Shearer,-S.A. 1993Winter. Estimation of heat rejection requirements by computer simulation. Paper Am-Soc-Agric-Eng. (931622) 16 p.

Willits,-D.H.; Peet,-M.M. 1993summer. The effect of evaporative cooling on the efficiency of external greenhouse shade cloths. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng. (934042) 13 p.

Wilson, A. 1965. Quality, Thickenss and End Point Effects in Charcoal-Broiled Pork Rib Chop Acceptability. M.S. Thesis, Kasnas State University, Manhattan.

Wing, R.W. and J.C. Alexander. 1972. Effect of microwave heating on vitamin B6 retention in chicken. Journal American Dietetic Association 61: 661.

Witte, L.C., Y.-T. Cheng, and J.E. Cox,. 1976, August 9-11. Thermophysical properties of foodstuffs, contributed by Heat Transfer Div., American Society of Mechanical Engineersl ASME-AIChE Heat Trans. Conf., St. Louis, Mo.

Wolf, J.C., D.R. Thompson and G.A. Reineccius. 1978. Comparisons between model predictions and measured values for available lysine losses in a model food system. Journal of Food Science 43: 1486.

AbstractA mathematical model, developed to predict available-lysine losses in a model food system which had undergone an isothermal-nonstirred process, was tested under different process conditions. The model predictions were compared to measured available-lysine losses in both jacketed-mixer processing and extrusion processing. Statistical analysis using a paired t-test analysis indicated a signficiant correlation between predicted and actual results for jacket-mixer process. In the extrusion experiment a statistically significant correlation (0.7) occurred when the predicted values were plotted against observed. However, variation due to product backmixing and inaccurate temperature measurement prevented a rigorous test of the model. The reaction order of available lysine loss in casein, single-cell protein and a soy protein isolate were determined at an elevated temperature. The casein and single-cell protein followed first-order reaction kinetics. The soy isolate initially follows first-order loss but after an approximate loss of 40-50% available lysine, the loss abruptly stops and a no-loss phase occurs.

Woodams, E.E. and J.E. Nowrey. 1968. Literature values of thermal conductivities of foods. Food Technology (Chicago) 22: 494.

Woolsey, A.P. and P.C. Paul. 1969. External fat cover influence on raw and cooked beef. 2. Cooking time, losses, press fluid and shear force values. Journal Food Science 34: 568.

Woodburn, M.J., E. Somers, J. Rodriguez, and E.J. Schantz. 1979. Heat inactivation rates of botulinum toxins A, B, E, and F in some foods and buffers. J. Food Science 44: 1658.

Wu, Y.V. and G.E. Inglett. 1974. Denaturation of plant proteins related to functionality and food applications. A review. Journal Food Science 39: 318.

Wu,-G.; Chieng,-S.T. 1993Summer. Numerical simulation of nonisothermal multicomponent reactive solute transport in unsaturated/saturated soils. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng. (932006) 16 p.

Xezones, H. and I.J. Hutchings. 1965. Thermal resistance of Clostridium botulinum (62A) spores as affected by fundamental food constituents. I. Effect of pH. Food Technology (Chicago) 19: 1003.

Yang,-X.; Ducharme,-K.M.; Elliott,-G.; McAvoy,-R.; Miller,-D.R. 1993Winter. Air flow mode and heat and mass transfer in greenhouses. Paper American Society Agric-Eng.. (934517) 10 p.

Yu, T.C., R.O. Sinnhuber, and D.L. Crawford. 1973. Effect of packaging on shelf life of frozen silver salmon steaks. Journal Food Science 38: 1197.

Yu,-Y.; Makhatadza,-G.I.; Pace,-C.N.; Privalov,-P.L. 1994. Energetics of ribonuclease T1 structure. Biochemistry . 33 (11): 3312-3319.

ABSTRACT: The energetics of thermal denaturation of two isoforms of ribonuclease T1 (Gln25 and Lys25) in various solvents have been studied by differential scanning calorimetry. It has been shown that the thermal transition of both forms of RNase T1 is strongly affected by slow kinetics, which cause an apparent deviation of the transition from a simple two-state model. By decreasing the heating rate or increasing the transition temperature, the denaturation of RNase approaches an equilibrium two-state transition. This permits determination of the thermodynamic parameters characterizing unfolding of the native structure. These thermodynamic parameters were correlated with the structural features of protein. Analysis of different contributions to the stability of RNase T1 shows that van der Waals interactions and hydrogen bonding are the major contributors to the conformational stability of the protein. .

Zabik, M.E., M.A.M. Shafer, and b.W. Kukorowski. 1977. Dietary fiber sources for baked products. Comparison of cellulose types and coated-cellulose products in layer cakes. Journal Food Science 42: 1428.

Zanoni,-B.; Pierucci,-S.; Peri,-C. 1994. Study of the bread baking process. II. Mathematical modelling. Journal Food eng 23 (3): 321-336.

A mathematical model of baking was set up and validated experimentally. The model describes heat and mass transport phenomena during baking of a cylindrical bread sample. The model was solved by finite difference numerical method. The model is based on the hypothesis described in a previous work (Zanoni, B., Peri, C. & Pierucci, S. (1993). J. Food Eng., 19, 383-98), that the variation in temperature and moisture of bread during baking is determined by the formation of an evaporation front at 100 degrees C. The progressive advancing of the evaporation front towards the inside of the product determines different conditions of heat and mass transport in a crust and crumb portion. The validation shows that the model correctly simulates heat and mass transfer during baking.

Zechman,-L.G.; Pflug,-I.J. 1995. Heat penetration rates of natural convection heating liquids in metal containers. Journal Food Protection 58 (1): 108-114.

Zechman,-L.G.; Pflug,-I.J. 1994. Heat penetration rates of natural convection heating liquids in metal containers. Journal Food Protection 57 (9): 802-808.

Zechman,-L.G.; Pflug,-I.J. 1995. Heat penetration rates of natural convection heating liquids in metal containers. Journal Food prot. Des Moines, Iowa : International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians. Jan 1995. v. 58 (1) p. 108-114.

ABSTRACT: Heat penetration (HP) test data have been obtained for water in 13 sizes of metal cans and for 16 fluids with different physical properties in 211 x 400 metal cans. Data were collected until the slowest heating zone was less than 0.1 difference in temperature below the heating medium temperature. When conventional HP graphs were plotted, these natural convection heating liquids formed curves instead of straight lines. A straight line was fitted by least squares regression to the data between (T1 - T) values from 40.0 to 4.0, 10.0 to 1.0, 4.0 to 0.4, and 1.0 to 0.2 difference in temperature and the f-values determined. The results show that the f-value of fluids that heat by convection increase with heating time, indicating that the true shape of the heat penetration data on a semilogarithmic graph is a curve.

Zechman,-L.G.; Pflug,-I.J. 1994. Heat penetration rates of natural convection heating liquids in metal containers. Journal Food Protection 57 (9): 802-808.

ABSTRACT: Heat penetration (HP) test data have been obtained for water in 13 sizes of metal cans and for 16 fluids with different physical properties in 211 X 400 metal cans. Data were coiiected until slowest heating zone was less than 0.1 C degrees below the he.

Zhou,-L.; Puri,-V.M.; Anantheswaran,-R.C. 1992. Evaluation of food quality and safety during microwave heating using finite element model. Pap-Am-Soc-Agric-Eng Winter 1992. (92-6560/92-6587) 18 p.

Zhou,-L.; Hayakawa,-K. 1995. Heat transfer analysis of edged particles. Lebensm-Wiss-Technol. London : Academic Press. 1995. v. 28 (1) p. 31-37.

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