CHANGING APPALACHIAN FOODWAYS: PERCEIVED CHANGES
AND
RATIONALE FOR FOOD HABITS OF APPALACHIAN OHIOANS
Deanna L. Tribe, CFCS, District Specialist, Community Development
Assistant Professor, The Ohio State University
and
Cynthia S. Oliveri, District Specialist, Family and Consumer Sciences
Assistant Professor, The Ohio State University
Ohio State University Extension South District
017 Standpipe Road, Jackson, Ohio 45640
Telephone:740-286-2177
FAX: 740-286-1578
ABSTRACT
Extension educators as change agents need to include sensitivity in programming to address cultural preferences of clientele when recommending dietary changes or adoption of new practices. It is also critical to build on the strength of eating patterns and habits by identifying and reinforcing healthy eating behaviors and/or suggesting adaptations of commonly accepted foods in order to encourage improvements. This study assessed the influences of cultural context, place of residence, life experiences and modern, mainstream society on the perceived changing foodways of senior adult Appalachians in ten southern Ohio counties. The studied population, determined by geographic residence and a questionnaire to identify respondents as Appalachian, recounted perceived foodways changes that have happened during their lifetimes just as rural life in general has changed. Several implications for Extension educators can be drawn from this preliminary study. Programming efforts may focus on techniques to prepare typical Appalachian foods using less time in preparation, reduced fat ingredients, and modem equipment. Changes in today's society oblige all educators to expand, redefine, and repackage current programming to meet the priority needs of culturally diverse clientele. Knowing clientele and understanding their needs and behaviors are key to successfully reaching Extension's target audiences (Stringer and Thomson, 1998).
INTRODUCTION
Extension educators as change agents need to address cultural preferences of clientele and the importance of considering these cultural preferences, of which food is a significant component, when recommending dietary changes or adoption of new practices. It is also critical to build on the strengths of eating patterns and habits by identifying and reinforcing healthy eating behaviors and/or suggesting adaptations of commonly accepted foods in order to encourage improvements. Learning about various ethnic groups and differences from the mainstream may be useful in customizing nutrition education materials and presentations.
This study focused on the eating behaviors of an identified population of Appalachian senior adults residing in ten counties of rural southern Ohio. The counties are all part of the federally-defined Appalachian region. Higher than average incidences of some diseases now associated with nutrition give cause for concern. The region and its people are stigmatized with negative images reflecting the deficit model, problems and resistance to change.
Home food production and subsistence agriculture represent heritage practices in this economically-distressed region, a common condition of much of rural Appalachia. Food habits have traditionally been influenced by the kinds of food one was accustomed to (often common to one's family and neighbors); types of food readily available; and resources to produce and/or purchase food.
The studied population, determined by geographic residence and a questionnaire to identify respondents as Appalachian, recounted perceived foodways changes that have happened during their lifetimes just as rural life in general has changed. These changes in food habits may represent improvements as rural residents assimilate mainstream practices.
Past Analysis
Limited references and studies exist regarding this population's foodways. Therefore, literature reviewed for this study fell into two main categories--foodways and eating habits in general and Appalachian meals and memories in particular. Camey's (1998) defining of foodways by folklife scholars provided the working definition for this study. This useful term describes everyday, domestic food traditions including foodstuff production, preparation, preservation, consumption and social/psychological functions. He pointed out that regional variations of the homogenized "American" diet can be associated with different ethnic backgrounds and soil and climatic conditions--geography--which he called a folklife and ecology theme. McIntosh (1995) placed American food habits in perspective in a historical sense with food acquisition, dietary trends, and nutritional assessments--cultural ecology related to food. He grounded the researchers in the terminology and expanded an interdisciplinary awareness of eating habits. Jones et al. (1983) provided a variety of directions and examples of research on foodways and eating habits in a small, but powerful compilation of studies. Jones' introductory sentence to the Prologue, "Why do people eat what they eat?" served as the basic question for this study. Although following more along the lines of what he described as research methodology of the past, in isolating a population for study and assuming that the food consumed depended on availability and social/cultural influences, this preliminary study touched on the implications of the sensory and social experiences of eating which Jones et al. (1983) say make the topic of foodways unique and justify research.
Most of the Appalachian sources cited for this study followed Jones et al (1983) approach to research as exemplified in Farr's (1995) Table Talk, subtitled Appalachian Meals and Memories and Lambert's (1988) Kinfolks and Custard Pie, subtitled Recollections and Recipes From an East Tennessean.. The subtitles reveal that these are more than recipe books in that the social aspects of food come alive and heritage is preserved in the descriptions of customs and traditions in growing, harvesting, preparing and eating. The recipes themselves suggested common foodstuffs for this Appalachian population and/or geographic region and served as a basis for developing a food inventory list for the survey instrument. The Southern Ohio Appalachian Cookbook (1994) assisted in comparing this survey area's recipes with the broader Appalachian region. This organization-compiled cookbook served as an example of another tool for studying foodways. Sohn's (1996) Mountain Cookery bonds a region, its people and its foods. His cookbook demonstrated how foods and preparation techniques from the past can be adjusted for today's lifestyles and healthy eating. East Tennessee State University's Spring 1998 issue of Now and Then is devoted entirely to food in Appalachia, ranging from Appalachian gourmet chefs to eating possum. Support for the assumption that food does have meaning in people's lives can be gleaned from "Kitchens" by Heather Ann Ackley Bean (Now and Then, p. 14) which related that "the worn pages of an old family cookbook allow a young woman to find her place in a long line of women from Appalachian Ohio."
The Regions
The ten South District Appalachian counties selected for this study are also included in Region 7 of the Area Agency on Aging. A joint nutrition education project between these two agencies is currently being conducted.
The area is very rural. Scioto and Lawrence are the largest counties (populations in excess of 80,000 and 60,000, respectively) with the latter being included in the Huntington-Ashland Metropolitan Statistical Area. The smallest county in the sample, Vinton, has slightly over 11,000 residents. Although some industry is present, for the most part the area has depended on a natural resource-based economy--timber, coal, and small hillside farms in the eastern counties with larger farms in the flatter areas of the western counties. Most of the counties are mildly to severely economically distressed with Adams, Pike, Scioto and Vinton having the latter designation with the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC). High unemployment and poverty rates and lower than state average per capita income pervade the region (Crawford and Bentley, 1994).
Unfortunately, negative stereotypes associated with "poor people having poor ways," resistance to change, and out of mainstream society plague the area. This extends to perceptions of eating habits and acceptance of change. Problems in the region and with its people receive more attention than do the strengths and positives which have allowed people to survive over time. An emerging focus on asset identification and capacity building is built into this study.
For the most part, Extension educators use the same nutrition education materials and presentations here as in other parts of Ohio. However, Appalachian cultural awareness training has been taking place in the region for several years, mainly with agencies and organizations in order to gain a better understanding of the region and its people and to be more responsive with services and education (Tribe, 1993). Extension educators are becoming more sensitive to clientele's differences and environments as this study reflects, seeking information to better understand eating habits in cultural context.
Procedures and Objectives
The primary objective of this study was to assess the influences of cultural context and place of residence (cultural ecology so to speak) along with life experiences and modern, mainstream society on the perceived changing foodways of senior adult Appalachians in southern Ohio. This required gathering descriptive data to describe a population. The researchers developed a survey instrument that assisted in identifying whether or not subjects were Appalachian; Appalachian food common to the region and Ohio Appalachia; changes in eating habits- influences over the lifespan- and common foodways practices.
Changes in today's society oblige all educators to expand, redefine, and repackage current programming to meet the priority needs of culturally diverse clientele. Knowing clientele and understanding their needs and behaviors are key to successfully reaching Extension's target audiences (Stringer and Thomson, 1998). Therefore, information gained from this study may be useful in developing and presenting culturally-relevant nutrition education.
METHODS
Structure of Activities
The researchers developed a lengthy, two-part Appalachian Foodways Survey. An earlier questionnaire (Saddam, 1993) utilized with a Filipino population in Columbus was consulted for framework. The first section incorporated questions to identify respondents as Appalachian based upon Maloney's (1996 ) definitions. These questions related to birthplaces of respondents and of their parents; residence within the region (rural, town, city) and time spent elsewhere; family size; ethnic background; perceptions of economic conditions; and educational attainment.
The second part separated foodways into categories and arbitrarily divided the lifespan into three time periods over which to denote and assess changes--as a child growing up- setting up housekeeping/raising a family; and now (the last 2 - 5 years). Questions dealt with whether and how eating habits have changed; changes in preparing and cooking foods; food choices for snacking or piecing between meals; influences on food choices; eating out; health problems; food supplements and home remedies; down-home, country foodways practices; and an inventory of common Appalachian foods. Checklists were used with opportunities to explain rather than asking open-ended questions. An invitation to share a favorite food memory allowed for the meals and memories, food meaning aspect of life.
Sample Design and Procedures
The population sample was not randomly selected, but represented a sample of convenience. As the desired respondents were senior adults who are Appalachian (and not everyone who lives in Appalachia is Appalachian), expediency and intent necessitated targeting locations where this audience was likely to be found. These locations included senior centers and Extension Family and Community Education (FCE) programs. The instrument was originally designed to be administered with oral interviews. Based upon a limited pilot study with a similar population, revisions were made to allow for different ways of delivering the instrument. This pilot served as a field test, assessing user friendliness and ease in completion. The surveys were administered with a few oral interviews conducted by the researchers; respondents completing the surveys themselves in group settings monitored by Extension staff, and direct mailings (with return, stamped envelopes) to FCE members provided by Extension agents. Nominal incentives made the 20 - 25 minutes needed for completing the survey more pleasant. Data were analyzed using SPSS, a statistical and information analysis computer program. (SPSS/PC+Base System User's Guide, Version 5.0, 1992).
Sample Data
One hundred seven of the 121 respondents were identified as Appalachian with 93 being Ohio Appalachian. Five were males, 101 females and one did not respond to the question on gender. The age range included 5% under 40; 4% 41-50; 18% 51-60; 26% 61-70; 30% 71-80; and 16% 81-90. This provided a population with lifespan experiences to assess changes in foodways and eating habits. Although not a random sample or of a size to warrant generalizations to the Ohio Appalachian population at this preliminary stage, it provided insights to more culturally sensitize nutrition education information and programming.
RESULTS
Family Status
Changes in family size in the population studies were significant. Twenty-five percent of survey respondents had eight or more siblings while only 2.8 % had eight or more children. The most frequent response for number of children was 2 (33.6%). Forty-eight percent currently live with one other person and 40% of the sample live alone.
Very few of the studied population perceived themselves as well-to-do at any stage of their lives. During childhood, 31% rated their family status as poor compared to 11% during the time of setting up their own homes and raising their families. Only 4% rated their current economic status as poor. This is surprising in light of the high poverty rates for the region. Changes in the in-between category rose from 66% as a child to 84% during their family rearing years, and to 86% currently.
Changes in Eating Habits
One of the first questions following the demographic section asked participants to indicate whether or not they perceived their eating habits as having changed since childhood. Over 75% of the respondents believed that their habits have changed since childhood and the setting up housekeeping phases of their lives. Follow-up questions in the survey supported the accuracy of this perception.
Influences on Food Choices
Survey respondents ranked influences at each stage of their life span. The most significant influences during childhood were family (81%) and garden produce (76%). The third most frequently checked influence was income (39%). During setting up housekeeping years, most frequently cited were interest in cooking and family (63%), garden (60%), spouse (60%) and cookbooks (58%). Currently, survey respondents are most influenced by local store/supermarket choices (65%), cookbooks (54%), income (53%), interest in cooking, and clubs. Areas of influence that increased over the life span included media, stores/supermarkets, time availability, interests, product labels, clubs, income and travel.
Down-Home Country Foodways
Differences were found in the number of individuals who raise/butcher their own meat, pick wild berries, grow their own vegetables, hunt/cook wild game, gather nuts, and season vegetables with bacon grease or ham hocks. Other categories also decreased, but to a lesser degree. Interestingly, increases in the use of food to show caring when someone dies and use of homemade food as gifts increased over the life span.
Changes in Eating Habits and Preparation
Participants were asked to check all changes that they have made in preparing and cooking foods. Sixty-nine percent indicated that they eat less fried foods, 55% eat out more, 50% eat different foods, 50% feel that they eat healthier, and 43% eat foods seasoned differently than with pork fat. This perception corresponds with the decrease in use of fat as seasoning mentioned in the influences section of the survey.
Changes in preparation most frequently cited were baking and broiling instead of frying and using shortening instead of lard. Participants are also using convenience foods and axes rather than making things from scratch as well as seasoning with spices and sauces. Reasons for these changes were due to taste, time to prepare, acquisition of modem equipment, more money to purchase foods and a desire to eat different foods than were eaten during childhood.
Respondents indicated that they are eating out more often now than during their childhood years. Participants circled the number of times that they eat out during the course of a week. As a child 66% never went out to eat as compared to less than 1% who never eat out now. The most frequent response to number of times eating out as a child was one time a week (8%). This percentage rose to 31% during the setting up housekeeping stage. Only 22% indicated that they never went out to eat during the housekeeping stage of the lifespan. Currently, 16% eat out two times a week, 20% of participants eat out three times a week and 15% eat out five times a week. This increase may be due to the popularity of senior congregate meal programs in the region.
Health Concerns
Health concerns of the population were assessed using a checklist of common health problems. Thirty-eight percent of respondents indicated that they do not currently have a health concern. The most frequently checked health concern was high blood pressure (32%), followed by other (23%) which was most often mentioned as high cholesterol, obesity, diabetes and heart trouble (all 13%). These concerns are typical of the region as noted in statistical maps of Ohio residents' health concerns (Crawford and Bentley, 1994).
Common Food Habits
The final section of the survey asked participants to indicate the frequency of typical Appalachian foods in their diets during the three life span stages. Choices were two to three times a week or more, two to three times a month, two to three times a year, or never. A t-test was used to analyze the data. Significant changes at the .05 level were found for soup beans, homemade noodles, mush, dressing, gravy, oatmeal, rice, creamed tomatoes, fried eggs, bacon and sausage, bologna, Irish potatoes, pork chops, green beans and sauerkraut. Perceptions of lower fat diets and bake-broil instead of fry as methods of preparation are consistent with some of these changes in diet.
Comparison Study
The Appalachian Foodways Survey was also administered to sixty-eight (56 females, 11 males) South District Ohio State University Extension personnel, including professional and support staff. Forty-nine identified themselves as Appalachians (forty-four Ohio Appalachians).
Overall, the results between the two surveys were very similar. The most significant differences were in the number of siblings, perception of economic status, eating out and health concerns.
Only 7.4% of the respondents had eight or more siblings as compared to 25% of the original sample. Only 17.6% of this sample reported themselves as poor during the growing up stage, 5.9% during the raising their families and 1.5% currently. Nearly twice as many respondents in the original sample indicated that their status was poor at each stage of the life cycle. The most frequent response for economic status with the Extension population was in-between, with 75% rating themselves at this status during childhood, and 89.7% at this level during the raising their family stage and currently.
In the Extension study, 48% reported never going out to eat as a child as compared to 4.4% who never eat out now. As a child, 35.3% went out to eat one time a week (as compared to 8% in the original sample). The most frequent response to number of times eating out now was two times weekly.
Sixty one (90%) of the Extension personnel reported no health problems currently. The most frequent health problem response was obesity (16%) followed by high blood pressure (14.7%) and other (13%).
The comparison study demonstrated that age and changing times have impacted individual's food choices and habits.
CONCLUSIONS
The research provides evidence that this population has experienced and practiced change throughout their lifespan. It refutes common stereotyping of Appalachians as unchanging or resistant to change--at least relating to eating habits.
Several implications for Extension educators can be drawn from this preliminary study. Programming designed for "healthy" eating out options needs to be emphasized with this population. Due to the strong influence of media and local store/supermarkets on food choices, programming may be developed to assist clientele in evaluating media, labeling and supermarket strategies. Nutrition educators may wish to focus their progranmming on techniques to prepare typical Appalachian foods using less time in preparation, reduced fat ingredients, and modem equipment. Use of spices and herbs in cooking could also be emphasized in place of the traditional salt shaker, responding to some individuals' sensitivity to sodium in relationship to high blood pressure.
Anecdotal comments by participants show a strong sense of pride in their cultural heritage and demonstrate the relationship of Appalachian meals and memories. These also give researchers a strong sense of eating habits. Notable comments shared by participants included the following-, "Saturday morning breakfast was fried apples, fried potatoes, fried eggs, bacon, sausage, homemade biscuits, apple butter, real butter, homemade jelly, sorghum molasses and whole milk." "I loved to go to my Grandmother's house. She would have bread pudding cut to eat in your hand." "Each Sunday we would go to my Grandmother's - - all her children would cook and bring food - we ate lunch, then dinner. No one bothered to put away the food between times, they just covered it with another table cloth. Today I have the memories and the table." Acknowledgment of foodways can be emphasized in cultural diversity/sensitivity programming which can assist Appalachian and non-Appalachian populations in appreciating and valuing differences.
Follow-up efforts to this preliminary study could include: expanding the size of the sample population and some changes in the design of the instrument to offer health and/or widowhood as reasons for changes in preparation; redefinition of food frequency categories; and more precise definitions of foods. An assessment of food as a symbol of heritage could be included as well as an exploration of folklife aspects of food, regional and ethnic identity, and socio-economics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are extended to Annie Berry, Senior Statistician, Ohio State University Extension, Columbus, Ohio, for her interest in the project and expertise in coding and tabulating the survey data. We are grateful to the following co-workers who helped administer the surveys: Lisa Newman (Adams), Joyce Brown (Athens), Rebecca Collins (Gallia), Paula Davis (Lawrence), Rebecca Baer (Meigs), Monadine Mattey (Pike and Jackson), Heidi West and Lisa Barlage (Ross) and Treva Williams (Scioto). Thanks to our secretaries, Barbara Brackman and Rhonda Wildman, for their assistance with the study and making the study and us look good in print. Thanks to the Senior Centers in Adams, Athens, Brown, Meigs, and Vinton Counties for their participation and cooperation. And lastly, we offer our thanks to members of the Family and Community Education (FCE) programs in Gallia, Jackson, Lawrence, Pike and Scioto Counties.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
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Crawford, Sam and Bentley, Lisa. (1994). Ohio Vital Statistics By County, 1992. The Ohio State University. Jackson, OH.
Farr, Sidney Saylor. (1983). More Than Moonshine: Appalachian Recipes And Recollections. University of Pittsburgh Press. Pittsburgh, PA.
Farr, Sidney Saylor. (1995). Table Talk: Appalachian Meals And Memories. University of Pittsburgh Press. Pittsburgh, PA.
Food In Appalachia. (1998). Now & Then: The Appalachian Magazine. Vol. 15, No. 1. Spring.
Jones, Michael Owen; Guiliano, Bruce; Krell, Roberta, Eds. (1983). Foodways & Eating Habits: Directions For Research. The California Folklore Society. Los Angeles, CA.
Jones, Michael Owen, Ed. (1994). Putting Folk Lore To Use. The University Press of Kentucky. Lexington, KY.
Lambert, Walter N. (1988). Kin Folks And Custard Pie: Recollections And Recipes From An East Tennessean. The University of Tennessee Press. Knoxville,TN.
Liles, Glennis Stuart and Baird, Betty Stuart, Compilers. Charles, Chuck D., Ed. (1996). The W-Hollow Cookbook. The Jesse Stuart Foundation. Ashland,KY.
Maloney, Michael. (1996). Working Definitions For Directory Of Appalachian Artists In Ohio. Ohio Appalachian Arts Initiative. St. Martin, OH.
Mclntosh, Elaine N. (1995). American Food Habits In Historical Perspective. Praeger Publishers. Westport, CT.
Page, Linda Garland and Wigginton, Eliot, Eds. (1992). The Foxfire Book Of Appalachian Cookery. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, NC.
Roush, Lili M. Gallia-Jackson-Vinton JVSD. (1994). Southern Ohio Appalachian Cookbook. Morris Press. Kearney, NE.
Saddam, Alma. (1993). Homemaker Questionnaire, Filipino Immigrants And Their Offspring Study In Central Ohio. The Ohio State University. Columbus, OH.
Sohn, Mark F. (1996). Mountain Country Cooking. St. Martin's Press. New York.
Stringer, S. B., Thomson, J. S. (1998). Demographic Data And Fresh Fruit And Vegetable Purchasing Preferences Of Minority Consumers In Southeastern Pennsylvania. Journal Family and Consumer Sciences, 90: 1, 18-22.
Tribe, Deanna L. (1993). Appalachian Cultural Awareness In Ohio: Implications For Educators And Service Providers. Ohio State University Extension and Gallia, Jackson, Vinton Joint Vocational School District. Jackson and Rio Grande, OH.
