Oregon Hazelnuts and Caneberries by Lesly Egan
History of the Oregon Hazelnut
A recent discovery by the University of Oregon archaeology department provides evidence that ancient peoples who lived in Eastern Oregon collected wild hazelnuts as well as blackberries. Remnants of these and other types of foods were discovered in a hearth near Newberry Crater. Radiocarbon dating puts the artifacts and food remnants at 10,000 years (Scientist Uncover Ancient Home, 1998).
The wild hazelnut is one of the few native edible nuts that was long a favorite of the Indians, the settlers who followed, and families that have lived here ever since. The wild hazelnut, while small and very hard-shelled, produced more calories per hundred grams than meat. In survival situations the wild hazel provided excellent fats and proteins (Mohney, 1975). The early Indians used the hazelnut to make flour and ground great quantities for baking. Once ground, the flour kept for long periods without spoiling (Mohney, 1975). Since squirrels and other rodents also liked the ground hazelnut flour early cultures developed elaborate storage facilities to protect their valuable flour.
Early Indians also used the hazelnut and its by products for medicinal purposes. Some of their remedies and other uses include:
In her book, Medicinal and Other uses of North American Plants, Charlotte Erichsen-Brown refers to C.S. Rafinesque's Manual of Medical Botany of the United States written in 1830. He stated that hazelnuts were "good fruit giving relief in nephritis; have an oil of a bad smell, anodyne (soothing the nerves, similar to a sedative) and odontalgic (curing toothache)" (Erichsen-Brown, 1979). Folk remedies may not provide the cures they were thought to have produced, but the hazelnut does provide excellent nutrition, which is one of its greatest selling points in today's health conscious market.
The origin of the cultivated Oregon Hazelnut has been attributed to the time frame of either 1857 or 1858. According to the Hazelnut Marketing Board the first tree planted in Oregon was by Sam Strictland in 1858. One of the oldest and largest hazelnut trees in Oregon is still located in Scottsburg. It is more than 100 years old, with a spread of more than 50 ft. In 1876 David Gernot planted fifty trees from seeds he ordered from France (OFC, 1973; Gerspacher 1996). He planted these trees along a fence row in the Willamette Valley. The trees thrived in the lush Oregon climate. In 1887, a French horticulturist, Felix Gillet, introduced the Barcelona and the DuChilly variety which makes up the largest varieties produced to this day. The Barcelona species produces a large nut that is desirable in quality.
What's in a Name
The ongoing discussion over the true name of this ovoid shaped, creamy sweet nut meat is but another quality that contributes to the uniqueness of this delicious nut. Both the filbert and the hazel belong to the genus Corylus.
Legend has it that this nut was known in Greece as the Pontic Nut because Pontus brought it there (Woodruff, 1977). Theophrastus, the father of Botany, gave them the name Heracleatic Nut because of their origins on the Black Sea. They were also known as Barcelona Nuts or Spanish Nuts, Cobb Nuts and Lombard Nuts (Gerspacher, 1996).
Corylus comes from the word korys which is a hood, or helmet. The word hazel is derived from the old Anglo-Saxon haes, or the German heissen, which means to give orders (Reed,1954).
The word filbert is a French derivative from Saint-Philibert, who was a French Abbot in 1584 A.D. and whose feast day falls in late August, about the time the nuts begin to fall from the tree and a few weeks before the nut's harvest. Filbert could also stem from the Old English name, full beard because the long husk that covers the nut resembles a beard (Gerspacher, 1996).
Oregon growers have been using the name hazelnut for the small round nut produced in the state since about 1981. Before that they called the nut filbert. Maxine Thompson, retired Oregon State University horticulturist who started the hazelnut tree-breeding program at in OSU the late 1960s, states that "Filbert is a British term" (Mastrantonio, 1988). She indicated that Oregon growers in the later 19th century preferred using the name filbert because it sounded more cultured. In 1981, the Oregon growers thought that the name hazelnut would make things easier because the nuts are called hazelnuts in other states and countries.
In 1995, the Oregon Filbert Growers voted to adopt a name change to Oregon Hazelnut Growers. The former filbert of Oregon officially became the hazelnut.
The Plant
Corylus
Corylus is one of the six genera that belong to the birch family. There are fifteen species in the world, covering the regions of North America, Europe, northern Africa, and Asia (Menninger, 1977). Two species are native to North America: Corylus americans, which is primarily an Eastern tree and the toughest nut bearing plant (Reed, 1954) and Corylus cornuta, which grows coast to coast and from the south to north Saskatchewan (Wynn, 1996). Corylus avellana and Corylus maxima are European species and produce choice nuts. Corylus americans, the native American, is hardy, disease-resistant, easy to grow, and easy to reproduce asexually as a small nut tree or bush.
In its natural form the hazelnut is a deciduous, monoecious, multi-stemmed bush, but in Oregon, commercial growers grow hazelnut as trees in orchards (Saveur,1998). The hazelnut is a Temperate Zone plant. The bark of the mature tree is a light brown, mottled with gray (Reed, 1954). Young twigs are hairy and ash colored. The leaves are two to four inches long, alternate, serrate, obovate and hairy (Britannica,1998). The plants range from 10 to 120 feet in height. In late winter an abundance of yellow male catkins and smaller, red-centered clusters of pistillate female flowers appear on the same tree. The blooming season of the hazelnut covers a period of at least three months, from the beginning of pollen shedding by early varieties to full bloom of pistillate flowers of late varieties. Self-sterility of hazelnut varieties makes interplanting or grafting necessary. Ideally one pollinizer tree to eight trees of the main variety has been the norm. In good seasons and in mature orchards, a smaller number of pollinizers (1:15 ratio) are satisfactory (Woodroof, 1967). In Oregon the principal variety cultivated is 'Barcelona', with 'Daviana' and 'DuChilly' as pollinizers.
In the milder climate of Oregon pollination can begin as early as January. At the time the pollen is being shed, the red stigmas of the pistillate flowers extend through the tips of the buds where they are exposed to the wind borne pollen (Woodruff, 1967). Evidence of pollination in the pistillate flower is not immediate. In late spring signs of the shell of the nut begin to appear idly. The embryonic nut within the shell develops into the kernel of the nut, which fills the shell cavity at harvest. Hazelnuts usually grow in clusters of two or three; each nut is covered with an open-ended husk that extends beyond the ovoid shaped nut itself. During the summer months the nut and the husk are pale green. When the nuts mature they fall free from the husks to the ground.
All hazelnuts except the Turkish variety send suckers up from their roots. Pruning or cutting the suckers is vital to growing orchard trees. For effective sucker control it is important to remove them three or four times a season for the first several years after the tree is planted. According to Jeff Olsen, Oregon State University extension agent, hand suckering is a practice of the past. Today suckers are controlled by sprays (Olsen, 1998 ).
Hazelnuts require a similar pruning to other orchard trees. At planting, root pruning is done at the base of the tree to reduce suckering and the tree is headed at approximately 20-30 inches. During the early years the purpose of pruning is to shape the tree and build a strong framework. During the early bearing state little pruning is done as the trees expand their root systems. When growth slows down and before the tops begin to crowd, renewal pruning is done to stimulate growth (Woodroof, 1967). In established orchards pruning is usually done mechanically. An enterprising farmer in Oregon has built his own pruning machine called a hedger-topper. This labor and time saving device tops the trees to the correct height and also prunes them (Arcamonte, 1995).
Disease and pest control for hazelnuts is always a concern for growers. In orchard culture the pest and disease damage can build up and must be controlled if plants are to be profitable. In Oregon the battle for the past 10 years has been with Eastern Filbert Blight (EFB). This is a fungal disease that has threatened to destroy Oregon's hazelnut industry. It is spread by wind and splashing rain. The Willamette Valley provides perfect growing conditions for it to spread (Mastrantonio, 1988). EFB is not easily controlled like other fungal diseases. Once the fungus enters the tree, usually through the buds, it spreads to the trunk and kills the tree. Although fungicide treatment and severe pruning can control some of the disease, the long-term solution is in genetic research. Shawn Mehlenbacher, Ph.D., from Oregon State University is one of the leading authorities on EFB and continues to develop new hazelnut cultivars that are resistant to EFB (Mastrantonio, 1988).
Most of the hazelnuts grown in Oregon are 'Barcelona' with 'Daviana' pollinizers. The 'Daviana' trees are very susceptible to EFB. 'Barcelona' is not as susceptible but can become severely damaged by EFB if exposed for long periods of time. Replacing 'Darviana' with more resistant pollinizers will lower the risk in an orchard. Removing pollinizers in a mature orchard is difficult and requires constant attention to all the surrounding trees. As new pollinizers are planted, special attention to sunlight and moisture stress need to be considered. Often new pollinizers are planted around the outside edges of the orchard where they can receive more sun (Olsen, Pscheidt, Mehlenbacher, 1998). 'Hall's Giant' has been a good pollinizer to replace 'Daviana' because it is less susceptible to EFB and it grows fairly well in established orchards. Research continues to provide new blight resistant pollinizers. According to Donna Stone of the Oregon Hazelnut Marketing Board the newest pollinizers that have been most blight resistant are 'Lewis', 'Clark', and 'Willamette;' however, confirmed results for immunity to EFB will not be known for five to six years (personal communication).
Harvesting
Hazelnuts fall naturally to the ground when they are mature and are mechanically swept into windrows by a 'Filbert Sweeper' (Saveur, 1998). The 'Filbert Harvester' picks up or vacuums up the windrows. The debris of leaves and dirt is blown out and the nuts are sucked in by a system of paddles and deposited in a trailer box. Nuts are gathered two or three times during the season. Rainy weather increases discoloration of the shells and if left on the ground for a period of time the nuts gradually darken (Woodroof, 1967).
Once the nuts are collected from the orchard they are washed and then dropped into large bins where forced-air heaters begin the drying process. Once dried to 9% moisture they are separated into various sizes for bagging in-shell or put into tote boxes for shelling (Olsen, 1998). Hazelnuts are sold according to size rather than type. The 'Barcelona' and the 'Ennis' are the two varieties that are most widely produced because of their large size and round shape. They are visually appealing and therefore account for the larger share of in shell market in Oregon.
Oregon Industry
Oregon produces about 98% of the hazelnuts in the United States. This figure, however, is only 3% of the total world output. The world's largest producer of hazelnuts is Turkey, which grows approximately 70% of the total world output. Italy, Spain and Eastern Europe account for the other 28% of the global production (Oregon Agricultural Statistics, 1997).
In Oregon the counties that produce the highest yields of hazelnuts are Yamhill, Marion, Clackamas and Washington. In 1996-97 a Hazelnut Tree Survey indicated 1,005 more acres of hazelnuts than four years previous. In 1996 there were 28,200 bearing acres with a yield of 0.55 tons per acre (Oregon Agricultural Statistics, 1997).
In 1997, the United States produced 2.4 billion pounds of all in-shell tree nuts. Of that number hazelnuts comprised only 3% (Johnson, 1997). Americans have traditionally consumed about 2.2 pounds of nuts per person per year. Hazelnut consumption was 4% of that (Johnson, Sheilds, 1996).
The Willamette Valley of Oregon is headquarters to most of the U.S. hazelnut growers and handlers. Over the years many organizations have formed to meet the needs of this growing industry and to help avoid duplication of effort. These organizations are:
| Hazelnut Growers Bargaining Association (HGBA) - A voluntary membership organization designed to negotiate prices between handlers and growers. |
| Hazelnut Marketing Board (HMB) - Responsible for Administering Federal Marketing Order, which is a federal law that the growers in the industry have requested. This helps establish quality and volume regulations. Oversees promotion programs. Currently the effort is to increase use of hazelnuts in bakery and confection products. Provide industry production and use statistics. |
| Oregon Hazelnut Commission (OHC) - One of the state commodities commissions in Oregon. Originally formed as the Oregon Filbert Commission in 1951, changed to OHC in 1994. Funding for the commission is an assessment from each grower per ton of product. Money is collected by handlers who turn it into the industry office along with a list of the contributing growers. OHC may do research education and Promotion. Currently administers research done at OSU, Oregon Department of Agriculture (ODA), and the private sector. Works with OSU Extension. Responsible for commodity commission legislation. |
| Nut Growers Society - A membership organization made up of growers and other people interested in hazelnuts. The society primarily handles the transfer of information from various sources to the people in the industry. Sponsor two major events during the year: The Northwest Agriculture Show in Portland and the Hazelnut Tour through the Willamette Valley where the majority of the nuts are produced. Distributes four newsletters a year and publishes an annual report of the working history of the industry. |
| Associated Oregon Hazelnut Industries - A voluntary group made up of growers and handlers who deal with legislative and political issues that impact the industry as needed.
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Hazelnuts are nutritional giants. They are a good source of protein and monounsaturated fats as well as being high in fiber, Vitamin E and minerals. Vitamin E is thought to inhibit some forms of cancer and guard against heart disease, Parkinson's disease and cataracts. Hazelnuts are also a good source of Vitamin B-6, magnesium, protein, zinc, selenium and copper. Nearly all the fiber in hazelnuts is insoluble, which has been linked to lower cholesterol levels (Lobb, 1996).
Hazelnut Uses
Hazelnuts are a global commodity. The nuts have been used for centuries for various customs as well as for food. Throughout the world today hazelnuts maintain their appeal. The hazelnut is an exquisite nut that is highly valued in European cuisine. Chocolate and hazelnuts are a natural combination that produces excellent quality candies. Worldwide use of the hazelnut can be summarized as follows (Duke, 1962):
Composition of Whole Natural Hazelnuts
| Proximate, g | 100 g edible portion | 1 oz. edible portion | Micro-nutrients, mg | 100 g edible portion | 1 oz. edible portion |
| Energy, Kcal | 587.0 | 166.0 | Riboflavin | 0.21 | -- |
| Moisture | 5.8 | 1.3 | Niacin | 1.15 | -- |
| Protein | 16.1 | 4.9 | Vitamin B-6 | 0.59 | -- |
| Total Fat | 54.5 | 17.0 Vitamin E | 20.00 | 5.7 | |
| Saturated | 3.7 | 1.0 | Vitamin C | 1.00 | -- |
| Mono-unsaturated | 44.8 | 13.0 | Amino acids, g | ||
| Poly-unsaturated | 6.0 | 2.4 | Aspartic Acid | 1.80 | 0.51 |
| Cholesterol | 0 | 0 | Threonine* | 0.56 | 0.16 |
| Total Dietary | 13.7 | 3.9 | Serine | .82 | 0.23 |
| Fiber | |||||
| Soluble | 0.5 | 0.15 | Glutamic Acid | 4.15 | 1.20 |
| Insoluble | 13.2 | 3.7 | Proline | 0.62 | 0.18 |
| Total Carbohydrate | 17.5 | 5.0 | Glycine | 0.83 | 0.23 |
| Complex | 14.2 | 4.0 | Alanine | 0.76 | 0.22 |
| Sugars | 3.3 | 0.94 | Cystine | 0.29 | .08 |
| Micro-nutrients, mg | Valine* | 0.68 | 0.19 | ||
| Calcium | 141.0 | 40.0 | Methionine* | 0.23 | 0.06 |
| Iron | 4.3 | 1.2 | Isoleucine* | 0.53 | 0.15 |
| Sodium | 2.1 | 0 | Leucine* | 1.20 | 0.33 |
| Potassium | 593.0 | 179.0 | Tyrosine | 0.47 | 0.14 |
| Magnesium | 166.0 | 47.0 | Phenylalanine* | 0.69 | 0.20 |
| Phosphorus | 301.0 | 85.0 | Histidine* | 0.44 | 0.12 |
| Zinc | 2.0 | 0.58 | Lysine* | 0.48 | 0.13 |
| Copper | 1.30 | 0.37 | Arginine | 2.54 | 0.72 |
| Thiamine | 0.59 | -- | Tryptophan* | 0.19 | 0.05 |
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China: Hazelnuts are roasted and then are pounded and drunk with tea. In Peking, confectioners make various hazelnut candies. The hazelnut is also eaten as a dried fruit. Italy: Hazelnuts used in chocolate manufacture and in confections. In some areas they are ground into powder and mixed with wheat and rye flour in order to make bread and cake. Germany: Hazelnuts are primarily used in pastry chocolates but also eaten as a dried fruit. A sauce is made using fresh hazelnuts after they are pickled in bay leaf and vinegar. England: Hazelnuts and figs are traditional at Christmas time. Arabian Countries: The Hazelnut is exported in large quantities. The domestic consumption is low but it is eaten as an appetizer. Mixing roasted and mashed hazelnuts with sugar makes a paste called Merdane that is considered healthful. In Istanbul soaps are manufactured from hazelnuts. United States: Focus is on hazelnuts in new markets of food preparation, bakery products, health food, and confections. One of the most recent rages with young people has been the introduction of a product called 'Nutella,' a mixture of cocoa, hazelnuts, sugars and oil. This product actually originated in Italy in 1806 but was reintroduced in 1946 by Pietro Ferrero. The children of Italy loved the creamy, nutty, chocolate spread and called it "supercrema glanduja." In 1964 Ferraro renamed his recipe 'Nutella' and he now sells over 100 million pounds a year (Skenazy, 1998). |
Promotion and Marketing
Hazelnuts are sold in many forms. Primary distribution in Oregon is the in-shell nut. Once shelled, the nuts are sold roasted, unroasted, whole, chopped, sliced, ground, flour or as a butter. Growers have long known the uses and versatility of the hazelnut and after considerable strategic planning a specific marketing goal was identified: to increase the awareness and use of Oregon hazelnuts and value-added products within specific market segments (Lobb, 1996).
To achieve the marketing goals, emphasis needed to be placed on the kernel market. Promotional information regarding shelf stability, advertising in trade publications and promoting nutritional benefits all contributed to the overall strategy. The industry also began to interface with other tree nut groups as well as with other agricultural industries who promote health and nutrition benefits of nuts and legumes.
In the past 3 years intentional marketing and promotion of hazelnut qualities began. In 1996 the Oregon Hazelnut industry launched its new slogan and logo. The logo is a cluster of three hazelnuts in their husks with the slogan "Fresh from the Northwest" above the graphic (Lobb, 1996). Polly Owen of the Hazelnut Marketing Board recently commented about the future of the hazelnut industry.
| The future for the hazelnut industry in Oregon is very bright. Once the relatively short term challenges of Eastern Filbert Blight are overcome by the creation of immune varieties, the pathway will be clear for targeted, hard-hitting marketing to increase the demand for and production of hazelnuts. The Willamette Valley with its mild climate, urban population and wide variety of unique agricultural products is well suited for growth of an environmentally friendly crop like hazelnuts (personal communication, March 1999). |
Some of the marketable qualities of Oregon Hazelnuts are:
Hazelnut Hints
Hazelnuts have a much more pleasing flavor if they are slightly roasted before eating or using in recipes. Hazelnuts can be roasted in a conventional oven. Preheat oven to 275oF. Place shelled natural hazelnuts on a non-greased cookie sheet as a single layer. Place in oven for 20 to 30 minutes until the skin cracks and the nutmeat turns slightly golden in color. It is also possible to microwave hazelnuts on full power for 3 to 4 minutes.
To remove the skins after roasting wrap the warm nuts in a terry towel and let the nuts steam for about 5 minutes then rub vigorously for a few minutes. The skins should come off most of the nuts. More skin can be removed by rubbing longer.
Shelled hazelnuts can be stored in the freezer for a year or more if kept in an airtight container. If shelled hazelnuts are not frozen then keeping them in the refrigerator between 32 and 35oF is better than room temperature storage. When hazelnuts are used, the nut should be warmed to room temperature.
Hazelnuts can be used whole, chopped or sliced. Hazelnuts can also be finely ground into a meal for use in fillings or as a replacement for flour. When hazelnuts are finely ground and sweetened a hazelnut paste results: this is slightly grainy. Hazelnut butter can also be made and is similar to natural peanut butter.
Caneberries Introduction
Caneberries are the fruits we know and love as raspberries, blackberries and dewberries. In Oregon they are found growing wild just about everywhere. Caneberries are also a very highly prized fruit for the home gardener and the commercial fruit grower. The flavors of these berries are favorites and are desired ingredients in jams, jellies, pies, wines and in dairy products. The berries are very nutritious, high in soluble fiber, vitamins and minerals. The ellagic acid found in caneberries, especially red raspberries and blackberries, has been found to be effective in inhibiting cancer. (Raval, 1996)
Cultivated caneberries are usually placed into one of the following categories:
Early Origins
Blackberries and red raspberries have been used as a food source and medicinal plant for at least 10,000 years (Scientists uncover, 1998). The recent find near Bend, Oregon revealed remnants from berries in the ancient hearth that was discovered in Newberry Crater. Caneberries have been cultivated by the Greeks as early as 370 B.C (Brambles, 1989). Caneberries are mentioned in the writings of Aeschylus and Hippocrates 500 years before Christ (Hendrickson,1981).
The Raspberry
There is a legend that the raspberry's scientific name, Rubus idaeus, was derived from Mount Ida in Turkey (Jennings, 1988). Apparently, Greek Gods discovered the raspberry there and hence the name. At that time raspberries were used as a medicine rather than as a food and the berries were not cultivated but wild. The medicinal uses for the wild raspberries include:
Raspberries were actually cultivated by the Romans in the 4th century (Brambles, 1989). Linnaeus used the name iadeus was for the red raspberry; for the genus, he used the name Rubus from the Latin Ruber, which means red (Jennings, 1988).
In the 16th century raspberries began to show up in home gardens in Europe as the wild berry plants were brought in from woodlands. The use of the raspberry as a medicine continued to be common at this time. It is believed, according to Jennings that the term Rasp came from the Anglo-Saxon Resp which means shoot or sucker (Jennings, 1988).
The 19th century saw twenty or more cultivars for red raspberries in England and the U.S. The first U.S. raspberries were brought from Europe in 1771 and sold in New York. After the Civil War commercial raspberry production began to increase. Many private individuals developed new cultivars and propagation methods. By the late 1800s about 2,000 acres of raspberries were grown, by the early 1900s about 54,000 acres were in production and by 1948 nearly 60,000 acres (Bramble, 1989).
The Blackberry
Ancient Greeks collected wild blackberries and enjoyed the fruit but also thought that they prevented gout and other ailments, including diseases of the mouth and throat (Hendrickson, 1981). From ancient beginnings until the 16th century, the flowers and fruit have been used to remedy venomous bites; the young shoots eaten as a salad; the bark of the root and the leaves contain tannin and have been used as an astringent (Trager, 1995). Culpeper, an English herbalist, recommended using the leaves of the blackberry combined with lye to make an early hair dye (Hendrickson, 1981).
Wild blackberries were an important part of the early American Indian diet. The berries were also prized for their medicinal qualities. Many Indians used berries in the preparation of beverages. The berries were combined with water and sweetened with maple syrup. The leaves and bark were used to make medicinal teas. The Indians would dry berries for use in the winter.
Pioneers and settlers valued the wild caneberries and learned many medicinal uses for them from the Indians. Settlers brought the knowledge of making jams and jellies for preserving fruits and each fall brought anticipation of making the tasty berry jam (Mahoney, 1975).
In early America the wild blackberries were considered a nuisance, so many were cleared from the land by pioneers. This practice did not inhibit the growth or spread of the native blackberry. As a matter of fact, it aided in the spread of the brambles. Ultimately the wild blackberry was often considered a weed.
The Evergreen blackberry was domesticated in the 17th century. William Price sold the first commercial nursery plants in 1771. The Evergreen blackberry, Rubus lacianatus, is native to England and was brought to the west coast by explorers from England. It was about the mid 1800s before blackberries began to be cultivated. Luther Burbank introduced the prolific cultivar known throughout Oregon and Northern California as the Himalaya blackberry in 1885 (ORBC, 1997). He thought he was bringing seed from the Himalayan Mountains in Asia, only to learn later that it was actually a European variety called Rubus procerus.
Wild blackberries have played an important role in the cultivation of new varieties in the Northwest. The undesirable thorns on the wild blackberry kept it from being grown commercially. In 1926, Mr. Philip Steffes of Sublimity, Oregon found the first fully thornless plant growing near Stayton. This thornless type yielded good berries and quickly gained popularity and is grown extensively in Oregon (Aiken, 1936).
Today, the Pacific Northwest is an active blackberry and blackberry hybrid producer. There has been an outstanding increase in fruit size, production and disease resistance among the new cultivars. Berry production continues to be a popular agricultural commodity both for the home gardener and the commercial grower.
Caneberries or Brambles
Rubus
Caneberries are members of the plant genus Rubus in the family Rosaceae. They are part of the large rose family of flowering plants with blossoms having five petals (Crandall. 1995). Apples, peaches, plums and strawberries are also in the Rose family. Roses are thorny, and typically have a fleshy fruit, such as the rose hip or an apple. The largest genera are Rubus, including the blackberry, raspberry, loganberry and other caneberries (Bramble, 1989).
According to the Bramble Production Guide, a Cooperative Extension publication, Rubus plants are called "brambles" because the stem, or cane, has thorns (Bramble, 1989). The fruit of the bramble is actually a many seeded fruit; technically, the pulpy fruit developing from a single flower, containing clusters of small drupelets. The drupelets adhere to each other to form the whole berry. When harvested, blackberry drupelets adhere to the receptacle or the core that holds the berry, but raspberry drupelets separate from the receptacle giving it a hollow center (Crandall, 1995). This characteristic is the primary difference between blackberries and raspberries.
The Plant
Caneberries differ in their growth and fruiting habits depending on the variety. All caneberries are perennial plants, which means they continue to grow for many years. Some are low growing and others are woody bushes or climbing vine-like plants. Most cultivated caneberries have root systems that are perennial and biennial canes, which means they live for two growing seasons. The canes can be stiff and upright, arched or semi-erect, or trailing.
In the first growing season the canes are called primocanes and do not flower or fruit. In the second growing season the canes are called floricanes when they become reproductive and produce flowers and fruit. The floricane dies after fruiting. Each year the dead canes are replaced by new primocanes; the plant roots live for many ears and produce new primocanes (Jennings, 1988; Aiken, 1936).
Differences in wild caneberries and cultivated forms are noticed more in the raspberry rather than in the blackberry. Cultivated blackberries are similar in growth patterns to their wild cousins. The wild raspberry, however, differs greatly from the cultivated raspberry in the number of canes produced in the second year. Wild raspberries will produce an average of 70 canes per plant while the cultivated raspberry only produces 20 canes per plant the second year (Jennings, 1988). The canes of the wild berry are shorter and thinner than cultivated forms. Jennings indicated that in studies of the wild raspberries in Britain that the fruit size in the cultivated raspberry was two to three times as large as that of the wild forms.
The diameter of the floricane is directly correlated to the fruit productivity of the individual cane. The higher yields derived from larger cane makes this a desirable factor. Caneberries are self-fruitful, which means that the pollen grains from the stamen (male part) of the flower transfer to the pistil (female part) within the same flower. This pollination occurs primarily through bees. Flower development usually occurs during the summer with fruits ripening in mid to late August. A warm early spring and summer can produce fruiting in early August (Shoemaker, 1975).
Harvesting
Harvesting of caneberries is primarily done by hand for the fresh market and mechanically for processing berries (Morris, 1984). In Oregon 75% of the trailing blackberries are machine harvested (Strik, B., 1996). Harvesting is frequent during the fruiting season, usually once every two days. Berries should not be touched before they are ready for harvest. Only undamaged berries with good color and form are picked. Once picked, the fruit is not exposed to sunlight (Bramble Guide, 1989). Because berries are so fragile they are usually picked directly into one-half pint containers, cooled, stored and transported. One of the contributing factors to the quick deterioration of harvested caneberries is their high respiration rate. The berries are alive when picked and continue to respire (take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide and heat. (Crandall, 1995). In berries this results in shrinkage and reduced soluble solids. To slow respiration, good temperature management is the most influential factor in delaying deterioration of fruit.
Cooling is critical in all stages of berry harvest and storage (Grubich, 1998). Field heat needs to be reduced as quickly as possible, within an hour of picking. Berries should be harvested at the peak of ripeness and preferably in the morning which is usually the coolest part of the day. Some growers' practice pre-cooling of berries just after harvest but before storing. Pre-cooling controls water loss, fungal growth and fruit breakdown. The process of pre-cooling can also be damaging to fruit if precautions are not made. Pre-cooling requires cool air to flow across picked flats of berries. If berries are exposed for too long to moving air they will begin to dehydrate and the quality of the berries deteriorates.
Storage for pre-cooled fruit can be either refrigerated air or controlled atmosphere (CA) storage or hypobaric storage. In CA the oxygen and carbon dioxide of the storage area are controlled in order to retard deterioration of the fruit. In hypobaric storage the fruit is cold stored under vacuum to reduce ethylene production and respiration rate of the fruit (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1999).
Berries need to be kept cold and wrapped throughout their harvesting and transportation in order to maintain quality. From harvest to table an estimated 40% of the fruit is lost due to improper handling and inadequate cooling (Bramble Production Guide, 1989). Minimizing the handling of caneberries and intentional selection of reputable transport companies with good equipment will go a long way to insure a higher volume of saleable berries.
Nutrition of Caneberries
Caneberries are an excellent source of carbohydrate and dietary fiber. They provide vitamins and minerals, such as vitamins A and C, calcium and iron. Caneberries are a fat free food.
The Caneberry Industry of Oregon
Oregon is the "Caneberry Capitol of the World." More than 95% of the caneberries harvested in the United States are produced in Oregon. Only 5% of the caneberry crop is marketed as fresh, the remaining 95% is processed for use in other products (ORBC, 1998).
Today Oregon produces 45% of the red raspberries harvested commercially in the United States. The cultivars that are most popular are 'Willamette' , bred by G. F. Waldo from Oregon State University, and 'Meeker' introduced from Puyallup (Jennings,1988). Both
Nutritive value of 100 grams of red raspberries or blackberries
| Nutrient | Raspberries | Blackberries |
| Water | 87 g | 86g |
| Calories | 49 | 52 |
| Protein | 0.9 g | 0.7 g |
| Fat | 0.6 g | 0.4 g |
| Carbohydrates | 12 g | 13 g |
| Fiber | 3 g | 4 g |
| Ash | 0.4 g | 0.5 g |
| Minerals | ||
| Calcium | 22 mg | 32 mg |
| Iron | 0.6 mg | 0.6 mg |
| Magnesium | 18 mg | 20 mg |
| Phosphorus | 12 mg | 21 mg |
| Potassium | 152 mg | 196 mg |
| Sodium | 0 mg | 0 mg |
| Zinc | 0.5 mg | 0.3 mg |
| Copper | 0.1 mg | 0.1 mg |
| Manganese | 1.0 mg | 1.3 mg |
| Vitamins | ||
| Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) | 25 mg | 21 mg |
| Thiamin | 0.03 mg | 0.03 mg |
| Riboflavin | 0.09 mg | 0.04 mg |
| Niacin | 0.9 mg | 0.4 mg |
| Pantothenic Acid | 0.2 mg | 0.2 mg |
| Vitamin B6 | 0.1 mg | 0.06 mg |
| Vitamin A | 130 IU | 165 IU |
varieties are suitable for machine harvest and the processing market. Research continues to be done to improve cultivars for the fresh market, for firmness and for insect and disease resistance. Some of the newly developed cultivars that meet these criteria are 'Chilliwack', 'Tulameen', 'Chilcotin', 'Skeena', 'Centennial', and 'Comox' (Crandall, 1995).
"Oregon is the leading blackberry production region in the world..." according to Dr. Bernadine Strik, Associate Professor of Horticulture, Oregon State University (Strik, 1996). Approximately 85% of the Oregon caneberry harvest is blackberries. The three types of blackberries grown in Oregon and their cultivars are:
'Thornless Evergreen' - second most planted commercial trailing blackberry. 'Boysen' (1935, California) same planted acreage as the 'Thornless Evergreen' with about 1,200 harvested acres. 'Kotata' (OSU/USDA, 1984) released as replacement for Marion. Good qualities and similar to Marion in appearance but lacks marketability of Marion. 'Waldo' (OSU/USDA, 1989) first genetically thornless trailing blackberry cultivar released. 'Logan' (California) raspberry/blackberry hybrid. Not as popular as it once was. |
'Shawnee' (Univ. of Arkansas, 1985). 'Arapaho' (Univ. of Arkansas, 1992) - some problems with primocane tip die- back. |
'Hull Thornless' (USDA, 1981). |
The Marion blackberry is the most widely used and highest yielding blackberry in Oregon. Recent promotions of the Marion in culinary magazines have raised the level of awareness of the rich flavor qualities in the Marionberry. Oregon's favorite berry is gaining notoriety in the health field as well for its neutraceutical qualities (Marionberry, 1998).
Marketing and Promotion
Oregon has three berry commissions, which are run by a board of grower and processor members and an administrator. The commissions are funded from grower assessments. The purpose of the berry commissions is similar to the hazelnut commissions--to help promote small industry and provide funding for research. All three commissions contract with "Berry Works" in one facility in Corvallis, Oregon to provide administrative services. The three commissions are:
Uses and Forms of Caneberries
Caneberries are best when eaten fresh either as a snack or dessert or added to beverages to make delicious shakes or smoothies.
The Future for Oregon Hazelnuts and Caneberries
Oregon is among the leading states for many agricultural crops and for research. Oregon has a climate that is ideal for growing hazelnuts and caneberries as well as many other crops. The economy of Oregon is dependent on strong agricultural production. Continued marketing and promotion by both the Oregon Hazelnut Board and the Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission will increase the demand for these commodities which is good for Oregon.
Hazelnut growers want to increase production but have the dreaded Eastern Filbert Blight to contend with. The growers are also concerned about urban sprawl, increasing population of Oregon takes up more farmland. Production is down for 1998 but optimism abounds as new hazelnut varieties begin to show resistance to EFB.
Caneberries continue to gain popularity and production barely meets the demand. Even though most of the caneberries produced are harvested mechanically for processed products there are concerns with labor shortages during harvest as demand for fresh berries increases.
Oregon continues to be at the forefront in agricultural research, especially at Oregon State University. The ongoing support by the OHB and the ORBC for research insures a profitable future for hazelnuts and caneberries. Growers are optimistic about the worldwide recognition Oregon hazelnuts and caneberries are receiving. Oregonians simply will not be out-produced in crops that are "naturals" for the state. First class production and marketing will keep Oregon in the forefront of the hazelnut and caneberry industry.
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