The learner will be able to --

The basic ingredients of baked products are usually flour and liquid. Fat, sugar, salt, eggs, leavening agents and flavorings are other common ingredients which may or may not be used in the recipe, depending on the product desired. Each one of these ingredients has its own role and function in baked products. The role(s) will vary somewhat from one type of batter or dough to another.

Liquid in a product may be milk, water, orange juice and any others. Although these liquids in the baked product may function differently, generally, liquid serves as a solvent for salt, sugar and other solutes. It also assists in the dispersion of all the colloids and suspensions, in the development of gluten, and contributes to both the leavening and gelatinization phenomena during baking.

In addition to sweetening baked products, sugar facilitates air incorporation by shortening. It also inhibits development of gluten and gelatinization of starch and elevates the temperature at which egg and flour proteins heat denature.

Eggs contribute to the structure of a baked product. They may serve to do this through their contribution of heat denatured proteins, steam for leavening or moisture for starch gelatinization. Egg yolk is also a rich source of emulsifying agents and, thus, facilitates the incorporation of air, inhibits starch gelatinization and contributes to flavor.

The leavening source used in a baked product may serve to produce gas by physical, chemical or biological methods. The leavening selected is usually dependent on the balance and kind of ingredients in the formula, and the manipulation methods used. Salt and a wide variety of flavorings are used to obtain the type and variety of product wanted. In addition to being used as a flavoring, salt functions to control yeast metabolism in yeast bread.

	FLOUR Flour contributes protein and starch to a baked products structure, the protein primarily being gluten. Flour may contribute protein and sugar for the Maillard reaction and/or yeast food for biological leavening. Flour also contains enzymes which may serve to weaken the structure.
	LIQUID Liquids will serve as tougheners. They will enhance the development of gluten and/or facilitate the gelatiniztion of starch, thus, contributing to structure. Additionally, liquid serves as a solvent, it may also act as a leavener, contribute to chemical reactions, and/or as a dispersing agent. If it is an appropriate type of liquid, such as milk, it may contribute to the Maillard reaction. Milk and water, fruit juices, and potato water contribute in different ways to the quality of a baked product.
	FATS Shortening, fat or oil contribute to the tenderization of baked products through inhibition of gluten development and starch gelatinization. They do this through a water-proofing effect, possibly due to the complexing with the carbohydrate and/or protein. Fat can help leaven a product due to incorporation of air. The extent of each role fat will play is dependent on the fat composition. For example, butter or margarine contains water and so are not as great a tenderizer as pure fat. Additionally, butter may contain some sugar and protein in the milk solids and so contribute to the Maillard Reaction. Of course, triglyceride fatty acid composition influences fat plasticity
	SUGAR Sugar contributes to the tenderization of the product due to inhibition of gluten development, "peptization" of gluten and/or inhibition of starch gelatinization. It does this primarily through its competition for water. Additionally, sugar may inhibit denaturation of the egg and flour protein. Sugar serves a number of other roles, such as enhancing the Maillard Reaction. It may also serve as a substrate, making yeast in the fermentation for leavening in bread.
	LEAVENING AGENTS Leavening action in a baked product may be due to chemical leavening, biological leavening and/or mechanical leavening. Mechanical leavening is generally added as a beaten aerated product or a steam leavened product. Air can be incorporated by beating eggs, sifting flour, beating batters or folding and rolling doughs. The additional leavening action by chemical means is produced in a baked product by mixing an acid reactant material and sodium bicarbonate. This acid reacting material is varied to produce the type of reaction desired in a baked product. These different acids each have their unique characteristic dependent on a range of environmental conditions and stresses.
	EGGS Eggs may contribute liquid to a product and thus serve as a toughener. It is a toughener partially due to its contribution to gelatinization of starch and/or development of gluten. The egg white portion appears to be particularly effective as a toughener. Actually, the yolk serves as a tenderizer, probably due to its fat content. The yolk may also function to emulsify fat due to its lecithin content. This is a crucial function in cream puffs. Eggs also contribute to leavening action through the emulsification of fat and air incorporation, foaming action and/or through the contribution of water to steam.
Roles Listing Summary

In reviewing the roles of ingredients, it is important to consider how the ingredients are balanced. In addition to the liquid versus dry ingredients, it is important to also balance the tougheners and tenderizers or structural enhancers or structural inhibitors. There are as follows:

Toughener Structural Enhancer	Tenderizer Structural Inhibitor
flour	fat
egg	sugar
egg white	egg yolk
water	acid
milk

Mixing is an important factor in producing any baked product. The blades themselves will make a difference. These influence viscosity, degree of dispersion, air incorporation and other quality characteristics.

Specifically, just reviewing the effect of mixing or agitation on flour itself, the following will occur. The flour, made up of chunks of protein, starch and starch granule protein can be mixed with water. The mixing action will serve to physically break apart the protein chunks into smaller parts and expose the hydrophilic portion of the proteins. The actual impact can be reviewed within the gluten theory portion of this site.

General objectives in mixing batters and doughs are as follows: The objectives of mixing can be listed as follows:

Each method will serve to prepare a product of particular quality characteristics and/or is adaptable to particular ingredients and/or conditions.

An understanding of the function and role of ingredients in any flour mixture necessitates an understanding of generalities and then of specifics. The proportion of tenderizers to tougheners is a relatively simple way to classify flour types. There are two major categories: batter and dough systems. Batter System have relatively high water content to flour. Water is the continuous. Structure depends much less on gluten development than on gelatinization of starch. Dough System gluten matrix is the continuous phase. The matrix consists of membranes surrounding the gas cells and is continuous because the cells are in contact with each other.

Classification of Batters and Doughs

TYPE	LIQUID	FLOUR
pour batter	1	1
drop batter	1	2
soft dough	1	3
stiff dough	1	4

In the past, batters and doughs were classified on the basis of the proportion of liquid to flour (by weight). This would reflect the probable liquid. This classification, to some extent, still fits with basic household ingredients. However, as more effective mixing and homogenizing methods have been developed and as a number of additives have been included for formulations, the proportion of liquid and flour does not always reflect the actually viscosity. The addition of emulsifiers will permit the increased incorporation of air and increase the viscosity. The addition of vegetable gums will also enhance the viscosity. All of these mean that viscosity and elasticity are not necessarily a reflection of the liquid to dry ingredients. A number of factors other than proportion of liquid to flour that influence batters and doughs can be listed:

GENERALIZATIONS IN REGARD TO INGREDIENT PROPORTION IN A CHEMICALLY LEAVENED BAKED PRODUCT

What does the above diagram represent?

During baking of any baked products there is an important interrelationship between the leavening, the balance of tenderizers and tougheners, resulting structural components, and the temperature. For example if one has a "tough" product, with high development of gluten, one wants to have the strong slow evolving of carbon dioxide and ethanol from yeast. In contrast, a popover is a tender product. Most of its structure comes from egg and gelatinized starch. A high temperature produces steam, maintain its production of steam until the structure is set.

Process

• melting of fat
• increased fluidity of batter/dough
• increased dissolving of solutes
• chemical or physical or biological leavening
• denaturation of protein
• gelatinization of starch
• steam leavening
• Maillard reaction

A brief review of baked products should probably incorporate those pour batters which are mechanically leavened cream puffs. With cream puffs, eggs are an important constituent serving to both contribute leavening with water, emulsify the high percentage of fat, as well as contributing to structure. Both the egg protein and wheat starch are the primary structural components. Popovers also have equal parts of flour and liquid formulating a pour batter. Again, egg and starch are the primary structural components. Another mechanical steam leavened products is pastry. In mixing a pastry product the incorporation of fat is critical. Finely mixed fat and flour will make a more mealy pastry, whereas, a coarsely mixed flour/fat formula will likely make a more flaky pastry.

• active dry yeast: tiny dehydrated granules of yeast that are in a dormant phase until they are exposed to water.
• all-purpose flour: is a flour which is intermediate between long patent flours (bread flour) containing more than 10.5% protein and 0.40 to 0.50% ash and short patent (cake flours) which generally contain less than 10% protein and less than 0.40% ash. It is made from hard or soft wheat and is used in baking and in gravies. It is also termed family flour.
• amylase: an enzyme that hydrolyzes starch to produce dextrins, maltose, and glucose
• bake: to cook covered or uncovered in an oven usually by dry heat; usually done in an oven but occasionally under coals, in ashes, or on heated stones or metals
• Baker's yeast: yeast used for raising bread, typically from the taxonomic group Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
• baking powder:is a mixture of dry acid or acid salt and sodium bicarbonate [baking soda] and starch or flour. It must liberate at least 12% CO2 when in the present of liquid and heat. Acids may be sodium aluminum phosphate, monocalcium phosphate, cream of tartar, tartaric acid and others.
• batter bread: a yeasted bread that is not kneaded but stirred vigorously. The very thick but viscose (pourable) batter produces a coarser crumb than a kneaded bread.
• beat: to mix with an over-and-over motion to smooth a mixture and to introduce air. This type of beating may also be accomplished by a rotary beater or electric mixer
• blend: to mix two or more ingredients until they are well combined
• bread flour: is a hard wheat flour, which generally contains in excess of 10.5% protein and is obtained from straight or long patent flours. These flours have high absorption and good mixing tolerance which make them suitable in yeast leavened breads.
• break and shred: the portion of the loaf between the top and the sides that shreds somewhat during baking. Ideally it should be even around the loaf.
• brown sugar: is a sweetener which consists of sucrose crystals covered with a film of cane molasses which gives it the characteristic color and flavor. There are three grades: light, medium, and dark which vary in sucrose content and color. It is used in baked goods, glazes, toppings, and fillings.
• buckwheat: is nutty-flavored cereal native to Russia, sold as whole seeds (groats) and ground seeds (grits if coarsely ground, flour if finely ground).
• cane sugar: is a sugar [sucrose] product processed from sugarcane.
• carbon dioxide: CO2 is a gas which is obtained during fermentation of glucose (grain sugar) to ethyl alcohol.
  is CO2 and a leavening agent produced by chemical or biological means for baked products.
• carotenoid pigments: Fat soluble, water insoluble yellow to red pigments found in plants and animals. Nature, it is estimated, produces more than 100 million tons of it each year and nearly 300 different carotenoids are recognized. Two of the most common used in foods are the carotenes and xanthophylls.
• compressed yeast: fresh (not dried) yeast that is extruded and cut into a cake form. It must be refrigerated at all times and has a relatively short shelf life of 4-6 weeks.
• corn syrup: is a corn sweetener which is a viscous liquid containing maltose, dextrin, dextrose, and other polysaccharides. It is obtained from the incomplete hydrolysis of corn starch. It is classified according to the degree of conversion which is expressed as the dextrose equivalent (DE), which is the measure of sweetness of the corn syrup as compared to that of a sucrose syrup. Generally the greater the degree of conversion the sweeter the syrup. Corn syrup is used as replacement for sucrose but is less sweet than sucrose. It can control crystallization in candy making, contribute body in ice cream, and provide pliability in confections.
• cream of tartar: is purified tartar, or argol, a crystalline substance found in the interior of wine bottles and known as "crust". Chemically it is better known as potassium bitartrate, or acid potassium tartrate. Cream of tartar is in white crystals having a gritty, acid taste, and is largely used in cooking, and especially as an ingredient of baking powder.
• crumb: are usually understand small particles of bread that are used in cookery for many purposes; they form an important ingredient in various puddings, and are very useful in forming, together with beaten egg, a covering or envelope for cutlets of different kinds of meat or fish intended for frying, or for rissoles, and many other things.
• cut: a) to divide food material with knife or scissors; (b) to incorporate fat into dry ingredients with a pastry blender or two knives, with the least possible amount of blending
• cut and fold: a combination of two motions - to cut vertically through mixture and to turn over by sliding tool across bottom of mixing bowl at each turn. Proper folding prevents loss of air
• denaturation: a change in the molecular structure from the native structure of a protein.
  DENATURATION is a change in a protein molecule, usually by unfolding of the amino acid chains, with a decrease in solubility.
• dextrose: an altername name for glucose, a monosaccharide having the chemical formula C6H12O6.
• diacetyl: CH3COCOCH3 The flavor-aroma agent in butter, formed during the ripening stage by the organism Streptococcus lactis cremoris. Added as a synthetic compound to margarine as 'butter flavor'.
• disulfide: a bond between two sulfur atoms, each of which is also jointed to another chemical group; these bonds often tie protein chains together.
• disulfide linkages: a bond between two sulfur atoms, each of which is also jointed to another chemical group; these bonds often tie protein chains together.
• dough systems: gluten matrix is the continuous phase. The matrix is the continuous phase. The matrix consists of the membranes surrounding the gas cells and is continuous because the cells are in contact with each other.
• eggs: are the ova of chickens. They have many roles. Eggs in custrd give the gel structure and color. Eggs in yeast breads provide added color, soft texture and richness.
• emulsifier: a substance that acts as a bridge at the interface between two immiscible liquids and allows the formation of an emulsion; a substance that aids in producing a fine division of fat globules; in ice cream, it also stabilizes the dispersion of air in the foam structure. Eggs contain the natural emulsifier lecithin.
• emulsion: the dispersion of one liquid in another with which it is usually immiscible, for example, oil in water
• enriched flours: flour with added niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid and iron to compensate for some of the nutrients lost during the milling process.
• fermentation: the transformation of organic molecules into smaller ones by the action of microorganisms; for example, yeast ferments glucose to carbon dioxide and alcohol. The products are used for "esthetics" in beverages and leavening in selected baked products such as bread and rolls.
• fermentation lock: in homebrewing, a one-way valve, usually made of glass or plastic, fitted into a centrally pierced cork or rubber bung and attached to the mouth of the carboy or secondary fermenter to allow carbon dioxide gas to escape from the fermenter while excluding ambient wild yeasts, bacteria and contaminants.
• gliadin: One of the proteins of wheat; gliadin and glutenin compose what is generally called gluten, the protein mixture which is the basis of dough formation. Gliadin is the protein responsible for coeliac disease.
  one of the wheat proteins which makes up one portion of gluten, the primary structural component
• glucose: Also known as dextrose, grape sugar and blood sugar. A simple six-carbon sugar (hexose) C6H12O6, occurring naturally in plant tissues and formed by the hydrolysis of starch. It is the major product of the digestion of carbohydrates in the intestine and is the form in which the carbohydrate is absorbed into the bloodstream. During digestion sucrose is hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose, lactose to glucose and galactose, and starches and maltose to glucose.
• gluten: is a unique protein in wheat that gives cohesiveness to dough. A gluten web traps fermenting gases that make bread dough rise. Gluten has both elastic (bounches back) and extensible (stretches out) properties.
  The protein complex in wheat, and to a lesser extent rye, which gives dough the viscid property that holds gas when it rises. None in oats, barley, maize. It is a mixture of gliadin and glutelin. In the undamaged state with extensible properties it is termed vital gluten; when overheated, these properties are lost and the product is termed devitalized gluten.
• grain size: measured by the smallest sieve opening through which it can pass.
• grind: s to reduce a foodstuff to small particles or powder by crushing it, such as to grind some black pepper over the salad | they grind up fish to make fish cakes. Also refers to the size of ground particles, especially ground coffee beans as only the right grind gives you all the fine flavor.
• hard wheat: wheat, generally grown in northern climates, that is especially suited to bread making because of a high level of the gluten forming wheat protein. It comes from both the high level of wheat protein to form gluten and comes from specific genus of wheat.
• instant yeast: instant yeast is a specially processed form of Active Dry Yeast that can be mixed into a dough dry (rather than dissolved) and reduces rising time up to 50 percent.
• invert sugar: mixture of glucose and fructose produced by hydrolysis of sucrose. 130% sweetness of sucrose. Important in the manufacture of sugar confectionery, since the presence of 10-15% of invert sugar prevents the crystallization of cane sugar.
• knead: the action used to manipulate bread dough that forms the gluten network in dough. To knead dough flatten into a disk shape, fold it toward you, using the heels of your hands, push dough away with a rolling motion, turn dough on quarter turn and vigorously repeat the fold, push, turn steps; a process of mixing that consists of a pressing motion accompanied by folding and stretching. In this way flour may be added to doughs that are too stiff to beat or stir
• lard: Best quality from fat surround stomach and kidneys of pig, but also from sheep and cattle. Neutral Lard No. 1- kidney and bowel fat rendered below 50C; Neutral lard No. 2- back fat rendered below 50C; Leaf Lard-residues from top two qualities rendered in autoclave; Prime Steam Lard-fat from any part of the carcass rendered in the autoclave.
  to insert lardoons-small strips of fat-into uncooked meat or fish either by placing in gashes cut into the food or by running them in with a larding needle. also applied to placing strips of fat, such as bacon, on top of meat before cooking
• leavener: a substance used to make baked products lighter by helping them rise. Yeast, baking powder and baking soda are the most common leaveners used by the home baker.
• light rye flour: rye flour ground from the rye endosperm. It does not include the bran or germ of the grain.
• lipase: Enzyme that hydrolyses fat to glycerol and fatty acid. Has a low specificity and will attack any triglyceride or long-chain ester. Present in the intestinal juice and in many seeds and grains. Sometimes responsible for development of rancidity in stored foods.
• lipids: General term embracing fats, oils, waxes, complex compounds such as phosphatides and cerebrosides, sterol esters and terpenes. Their common property is insolubility in water and solubility in non-polar solvents, including chloroform, hydrocarbons and alcohols. Most include fatty acids in their structure. a broad group of fatlike substances with similar properties
• lipoproteins: are proteins combined with lipid or fatty material such as phospholipids.
• liquid: the ingredient which has flow or viscosity. May be milk, water, juices or other liquids. It will dissolve and disperse ingredients.
• liquid sugars: is a finished sugar product sold in the liquid state. Is a concentrated solution of sugar products and water.
• maillard reaction: Two processes in foods can produce a brown color. One is the enzymatic oxidation of phenolic substances, such as occurs at the cut surface of an apple. The other is a reaction between proteins or amino acids and sugars, and is variously known as the Maillard reaction, the browning reaction and non-enzymic browning. It takes place on heating or on prolonged storage and is one of the deteriorative processes that take place in stored foods. It is accompanied by a loss in nutritive value, since the part of the protein that reacts with the sugar is the free amino part of the lysine. This complex is not digested and there is thus a reduction in the biologically available lysine.
• maltase: Malt sugar, maltobiose; 4-ortho-gamma-D-glucopyranose. Double molecule of glucose which is hydrolyzed during digestion to glucose. Does not occur in foods (unless specifically added as malt) but is formed as an intermediate during acid or enzymic digestion of starch. 33% as sweet as sucrose; a reducing sugar.
• maturing agent: a substance that brings about some oxidative changes in white flour and improves its baking properties.
• mill: to beat, it is best done with a rotary beater, milk dishes, such as cocoa, are milled to remove scum formed during heating; refers to grinding of flour - "to mill"
• millet: Cereal of a number of species of Gramineae smaller than wheat and rice and high in fiber content. Common millet (Panicum and Setaria species) also known as China, Italian, Indian, French hog, proso, panicled and broom corn millet, foxtail millet (Setaria italica); grows very rapidly, 2-2.5 months from sowing to harvest. Protein 10%, fat 2.5%, carbohydrate 73%. Red, finger, South India millet, coracan or ragi is Eleusine coracana. Protein 6%, fat 1.5%, carbohydrate 75%.
• molasses: Residue left after repeated crystallization of sugar; contains sucrose, glucose and fructose and (if from beet) raffinose and small quantities of dextrans; will not crystallize; 67% sucrose, 260 kcal (1.1 MJ) per 100 g; contains more than 500 mg iron per 100 g with traces of other minerals.
• monoglyceride: is a lipophilic emulsifier prepared by the direct esterification of fatty acids with glycerol or by the interesterification between glycerol and other triglycerides. It is insoluble in water. It provides emulsion stability, prevents fat separation, and also functions as a foaming agent, defoaming agent, and dispersant. It is most often used in combination with a diglyceride. It is used in ice cream, peanut butter, puddings, and numerous other applications. the typical usage level is 0.05 to 0.40%.
• muffin: a small cake-like bread (generally, but not always, a quick bread) made with a variety of flours, fruits and nuts and baked in a individual portion muffin pan.
• oligosaccharide: the general term for sugars composed of a few-often between three and ten-simple sugars or monosaccharides; a charbohydrate containing 2-20 sugar residues (the upper limit is not well-defined); intermediate-size molecules containing approximately ten or fewer basic units.
• oven spring: is the rapid expansion of volume in bread during the early phase of baking.
• oven proof: bread that has been risen too much. It may not hold its dome top or shape and may develop "off" flavors.
• pentose: a simple sugar or monosaccharide with five carbon atoms.
• peptide linkage: linkage between two amino acids that connects the amino group of one and the acid (carboxyl) group of the other
• plastic: able to be molded into various shapes without shattering as a force is applied; plastic fats can be mixed or creamed
• plasticity: the ability to be molded or shaped; in plastic fats, both solid crystals and liquid oil are present
• potassium bromate: is a dough conditioner which exists as white crystals or powder and is soluble in water. It exists in the anhydrous form as white granular powder and in the hydrated form as small white crystals or granules. It is used to age and improve the baking properties of flour. It is used with potassium iodate and azodicarbonamide to modify the protein in bread flour to promote the desired properties of loaf volume and shape. It is used in baked goods.
• proofing: is to activate yeast by the addition of liquid. It is a portion of the fermentation process in the making of bread Generally, it is the time during which the shaped loaf of bread is allowed to rise.
  is the last rising of bread dough after it is molded into a loaf and placed in the baking pan.
• proofing yeast: to dissolve yeast in warm liquid (we recommend 1/4 cup water) with ~1 teaspoon sugar and set it aside for 5 - 10 minutes until it develops foam on top.
• protease: an enzyme that hydrolyzes protein to smaller fragments, eventually producing amino acids. May "temper" gluten in bread fermentation and proofing.
  is an enzyme that brings about the clotting of milk and is used in the manufacture of cheese. A specific protease is rennin or rennate.
• pumpernickel flour: heavy, black bread made from rye originating from German. Name derived from napoleon's remark that it was “pain pour Nicole' (his horse).
• quick bread: Term for baked goods such as biscuits, muffins, popovers, griddles, cakes, waffles and dumplings, in which no yeast is used, but the raising carried out quickly with baking powder or other chemical agents.
  Quickbreads are the chemical and steam-leavened products that one generally eats quickly. Popovers, biscuits and muffins are excellent examples of quickbreads.
• quick-rise yeast: an "instant" yeast ideal for dry mix methods of baking but can be used in any method.
• rapid rise yeast: a yeast similar to active dry yeast, although more finely granulated so that it can be mixed directly with dry ingredient.
• rise: a stage in the process of making yeast breads where the dough is set in a warm, draft-free place for a period of time (usually an hour or so) while the yeast ferments some of the sugars in the dough, forming carbon dioxide. This causes the bread to grow. A rising period usually lasts until the dough doubles in size.
• rye flour: is the flour obtained by milling rye. It is available in white, medium, and dark grade and has a distinct flavor. It is usually diluted with wheat flour in order to make it more palatable. It is used in bread making.
  milled from a hearty cereal grass containing less gluten than wheat flour It comes in dark, medium and light versions (see these headings)
• shred: the area on the sides of a loaf of bread, just above the pan, where the dough rises in the oven before the crust is formed; a desirable shred is even and unbroken.
• soft wheat: is flour, such as cake and pastry flour, that is relatively low in protein.
• sponge: the mixture of liquid, yeast, sugar, and part of the flour to make a thin batter that is held at lukewarm temperature to allow yeast activity for a period before the remaining intredients are added to form a dough.
• spores: In relation to bacteria, they are the resting state; thick-walled, highly resistant to damage by heat. Under suitable conditions they germinate to produce bacteria. Not all bacteria can form spores; the so-called spore-bearers are a hazard in pasteurization and sterilization, as the spores can remain undamaged in the processing and the material is consequently not sterile.
• stabilizer: a water-holding substance, such as a vegetable gum, that interferes with ice crystal formation and contributes to a smooth texture in frozen desserts.
• straight dough: a single step method of mixing a dough in which all the ingredients are mixed into a single batch and mixed together.
  of yeast bread has the liquid generally warmed with the sugar, salt, and softened fat, yeast is added at appropriate temperature, 1/3 of the flour blended; the rest of the flour added; kneading and mixing; fermentation, making into a loaf; proofing and cooking.
• staling: refers to those changes in quality that occur in baked products after baking. Generally, their is a loss of flavor, softening of the crust or development of a leathery crust, and increased firmness of the crumb.
• sugar: is a sweet crystalline substance obtained from various plants, especially sugar cane and sugar beet, consisting essentially of sucrose, and used as a sweetener in food and drink. It is a lump or teaspoonful of sugar, used to sweeten tea or coffee. Sugar also means to sweeten, sprinkle, or coat with sugar.
• tenderizer: in flour mixtures it is a sumbstance which degrees structural strength.
• total sugars: is a measurement of the total amount of saccharides.
• toughener: is an ingredient which enhances the structure of a flour mixture. Usually starch or protein [egg, gluten].
• traditional active dry yeast: active dry yeast should be dissolved before using for best results.
• unbleached flour: white flour without bleaching or aging agents added to hasten the aging process.
• underproof: under risen or fermented. This is considered to be the fermentation which takes place in the bread pan. If underproofed it was not allowed to rise adequately.
• unleavened: bread or dough product containing no yeast or chemical (baking soda, baking powder) leavener. If any leavening occurs at all it may be steam according to some definitions; however, unleavened according to this webber means that steam leavening does not occur. For example, a pound cake would be considered unleavened as it has no yeast or chemical leavening; whereas, considerable steam leavening occurs if the butter is properly aerated.
• white rye: another name for Light Rye
• whole wheat: wheat flour milled using the entire wheat berry (germ, endosperm, bran).
  The difference between white flour and whole-wheat flour is the milling process. About 83 percent of the wheat kernel is the endosperm. White flour is made entirely from the endosperm. Whole-wheat flour contains the endosperm and the other two parts of the kernel: the bran, which is 14.5 percent of the kernel; and the germ, which is 2.5 percent of the kernel. Whole-wheat flour means the whole kernel is used.
• yeast: Grouped with the fungi although they are unicellular. Various types are of major importance in the food industry. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in brewing, wine-making and baking. Varieties such as Candida utilis (formerly Torula utilis) are grown on carbohydrate or hydrocarbon media as animal feed and potential human food, since they contain about 50% protein (dry weight) and are very rich in B vitamins.
• yeast bread: any bread whose primary leavening action results from the fermentation of sugar by yeast.
• yeast fermentation: Fermentation during the manufacture of beer with a yeast that sinks to the bottom of the tank. Most beers are produced this way; ale, proter and stout being the principal beers produced by top fermentation.
  a process in which enzymes produced by the yeast break down sugars to carbon dioxide and alcohol, and also produce some flavor substances.