Butter
Lard
Margarines
Oil
Shortenings
Low Fat, Fat Replacers and Substitute
Trends

Is there a difference between margarines and hydrogenated fats? What is the composition of cocoanut oil?
Why are there off-odors and - flavors in oil and shortening?
Why are there off-odors and - flavors in oil and shortening?
Are there any definitions or standards for buttercream? Can an icing made with shortening be called buttercream?
What is polymorphism?
What are some emulsifying agents used in foods?
What is the HLB number to determine emulsification?
What is an unsaturated fatty acid? What is a saturated fatty acid?
What are the contributions of fats to foods?
What is the difference between olive, grape-seed, tea and avocado oil?
Which of the following triglycerides (fats) would be most firm at room temperature 27C, 70F)?
Which of the following triglycerides (fats) would be most firm at room temperature 27C, 70F)?
If there were two isomers of triglycerides B, one having "hydrogen" in CIS form and the other in the TRANS form, which would likely have the higher melting point? Why?
What is fatcrystallization?
What is polymorphism?
Is there a difference between margarines and hydrogenated fats?
Many formulas call for clarified butter. What is the procedure to make clarified butter?
When should I use high-ratio shortening?
How important is the absorption value of icing shortening? G.F., Vineland, N.J.
Why is it of interest to know about fatty acids and how triglycerides are formed?
How do I use low-fat and fat-free dairy products?
Should oil in a deep fry kettle that has a strong odor and smokes be save to use again or discarded?

http://www.achumko.com/

Ac Humko manufacturers oil-based food products for retail, food processor, and foodservice markets. Has analytical products and a pilot plant. Information of all products and services at this site.

http://www.aocs.org/

American Oil Chemists' Society is an international society serving fats, oils, proteins, surfactants, and detergents fields.

http://www.aepcolloids.com/

AEP Collids, Inc. has a range of colloids [vegetable gums] available for purchase. The site includes products and profiles, sample requests, literature request, custom stabilizer blends and contact information. They include information regarding low-fat replacers and products.

http://www.blueskyfoods.com/

Blue Sky Trading Overseas, Inc. exports olive oil, Spanish gourmet food products, speciality and gourmet kosher food products from Spain. Is a distributor for wines.

http://www.BungeOils.com/

Bunge has links to oil market information and their products of a wide range of shortenings, oils and margarines for the food processing, foodservice, and bakery industry. Customers of Bunge Oils enjoy customized formulations and expert technical assistance from the company.

http://www.caloriecontrol.org/

Calorie Control Council has a calorie calculator and information on low calorie sweeteners, fat replacers, trends and statistics, FAQ, companies and a variety of links and information on losing weight.

http://www.nalusda.gov/fnic/dga/dga95/lowfat.html

Choose a diet low in fat, saturated fat and cholesterol

http://www.crisco.com/

Crisco has a meal planner, FAQ, recipes and meal plans, products, and Crisco History and Time line.

http://criscokitchen.com/

Crisco is a site of Canadian Crisco Kitchen with e-mail, recipes, and tips.

http://www.achfood.com

Humko Oil Products is a division of Ach Food Companies. Has high performance shortenings and emusified systems, specialty nutritional blends, high stability liquid oils, flavored fat systems, margarines, low IV flakes, fluidized bakery shortenings, nutri-lipids GMO-free shortenings, nutri-lipids no-trans shortenings.

http://www.croklaan.com/

Loders Croklaan is a site which looks at the sustainability of palm oil. The objectives of the RSPO are to preserve the natural environment in a sustainable way that also permits reasonable growth of palm oil plantations that support local populations.

http://www.margarine.org/

National Association of Margarine Manufacturers has nutrition, facts, and other information.

http://www.naturalstop.com

Natural Stop has Bearleans Organic Oils. Products, a newsletter, health links, and information are available. Includes flaxseed and borage oil.

http://www.oilseedssf.com/

Oilseeds International Ltd. is the pioneer in the worldwide expansion of Oleic Safflower Oil, Oleic Sunflower Oil and Rice Bran Oil. They promote and process various vegetable oils including, Cottonseed Cooking Oil, NuSun Sunflower Oil, High Oleic Sunflower Oil, High Linoleic Safflower Oil and Safflower for Birdseed. We also have information relating to good (HDL) cholesterol and bad (LDL) cholesterol, trans fatty acids, and monounsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fat and saturated fat.

http://www.olean.com/

Olean is the site for the fat substitute Olean.

http://www.southerngrease.com/learn.htm

Southern Grease has information about running vegetable oil as an alternative fuel.

http://www.venturafoods.com/

Ventura Foods has shortenings, margarines, mayonnaise, sauces, release agents, oils, butter blends, salad dressings, soup bases, and flavored spreads. Includes product info, menu planning, programs, consult the chef

http://www.pg.com

Procter & Gamble Co.History: yes Annual: yes Product(s) Selling: Fats, beverages, miscActivities: yes

INFORMATION

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Suet is, if true, the solid fat found around the kidneys and loins of beef and sheep. Often in a recipe it is considered to be beef suet. Suet has a high melting point. You can buy suet from your butcher for you may need to cut away bits of meat. Chop the fat finely but don't use a blender. It can be frozen.

REFERENCES

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http://ianrpubs.unl.edu/foods/nf306.htm

Olestra - Fat Substitute Approved by FDA in January 1996 is discussed.

Abdel-Rahman, A.-H.Y. and A.M. Soad. 1975. Mastich as an antioxidant. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 52:423.

Mastich added to cottonseed oil and sunflower oil as an antioxidant was compared with commercial antioxidants butylated hydroxyanisole and Embanox 3. Peroxide values of the oils stored at different temperatures were determined.

Allain, C. C., L. S. Poon, C. S. Chan, W. Richmond, and P. C. Fu. 1974. Enzymatic determination of total serum cholesterol. Clin Chem. 20:470-5.

Allen, R.R. 1978. Principles and catalysts for hydrogenation of fats and oils. Journal Ammiercan Oil Chem. Sco. 55: 792.

Amaud, J., 1. Fortis, S. Blachier, D. Kia, and A. Favier. 1991. Simultaneous determination of retinol, alpha-tocopherol and beta- carotene in serum by isocratic high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr. 572:103-16.

American Oil Chemists'Society. 1988. Method Cd-8-53. In Official Methods and Recommended Practices. American Oil Chemists' Society, Champaign, IL

Andrews, J.T.R. 1935. Gaseous decomposition products of rancid oils. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 12:104.

This paper reports research which determined the amounts of various gases evolved from a heat treated rancid oil. Peroxide and iodine values, acid number, saponification number, carbonyl number and hydroxyl number were determined before and after heating. The relationship between the values obtained was discussed.

Assmann, G., H. Schriewer, G. Schmitz, and E. 0. Hagele. 1983. Quantification of high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol by precipitation with phosphotungstic acid/MgCI2. Clin Chem. 29:2026-30.

Astill, B. D., C. J. Terhaar, W. J. Krasavage, G. L. Wlof, R. L. Roudabush. 1975. Safety evaluation and biochemical behavior of monotertiarybutylhydroquinone. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 52:53-8.

Baker, J.C. and M.D. Mize. 1942. The relation of fats to texture, crumb, and volume of bread. Cereal Chemistry 19:84.

In 1939 we observed that although semi-solid fats all gave the usual improvement in bread quality, liquid and fats did not when used in the same manner. This study determined that doughs containing liquid fats, or those containing no shortening, when heated, began their oven spring at exactly the same rate as dough containing semi-solid fats.

Banks, W., J.L. Clapperton and M.E. Ferrie. 1976. The physical properties of milk fats of different chemical composition. Journal Society Dairy Technology 29:86.

Milk fats of varying composition were produced by supplementing the diets of cows with tallow, soy oil, or palm oil-palmitic acid mixture. The melting points of the milk fats were determined using a scanning calorimeter.

Bates, R.W. 1952. 6-factor control assures quality deep fat-fried foods. Food Engineering 24(12):82.

This article discusses six problems that occur when fats or shortenings are used for deep-fat frying. The means of controlling changes during heating are discussed. The six changes outlined are: hydrolysis, polymerization, instability, discoloration, foreign material buildup and off-flavor development.

Berry, E. M., S. Eisenberg, D. Haratz, Y. Friedlander, Y. Norman. 1991. Effects of diets rich in monounsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipoproteins--the Jerusalem Nutrition Study: high MUFAs vs high PUFAS. American Journal Clinical Nutrition 53:899-907.

Bickford, W.G., G.S. Fisher, L. Kyame and C.E. Swift. 1948. autoxidation of fats. II. Preparation and oxidation of methyl oleate-maleic anal hydride adduct. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 25:254.

This paper discusses an investigation of the structure of the products of methyl oleate-maleic anal hydride oxidation. Methods of preparation, ozonization, esterification, and fractionation of fats are described.

Birnbaum, H. 1981December. The monoglycerides: manufacture, concentration, derivatives and applications. Bakers Digest 55(6): 6.

Bittenbender, C.D. 1970. Fat determination--a new physical method. Journal Food Science 35:460.

A method for fat determination using samples dissolved in heptane is described. The method is based on the relative density of the sample solution measured by hydrometric techniques.

Bligh, E. G., and W. J. Dyer. 1959. A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification. Can J Biochem Phys. 37:911-917.

Blunt, K. and C.M. Feeney. 1915. The smoking temperatures of edible fats. Journal Home Economics 7:535.

Smoking temperatures and free acid as oleic was determined on 13 different fats. Size and shape of the pan, roughness of pan and addition of flour and oleic acid were the variables tested.

Bonanome, A., A. Pagnan, S. Biffanti, A. Opportuno, F. Sorgato. 1992. Effect of dietary monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids on the susceptibility of plasma low density lipoproteins to oxidative modification. Arterioscler Thromb. 12:529-33.

Bonanome, A., F. Biasia, M. De Luca, G. Munaretto, S. Biffanti. 1996. n-3 fatty acids do not enhance LDL susceptibility to oxidation in hypertriacylglycerolemic hemodialyzed subjects. American Journal Clinical Nutrition 63:261-6.

Brignoli, C.A., J.E. Kinsella and J.L. Weihrauch. 1976. Comprehensive evaluation of fatty acids in foods. V. Unhydrogenated fats and oils. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 68:224.

The fatty acid composition of unhydrogenated fats and oils is reported. Although fatty acid ester weight percent was determined, all values given in the article are g fatty acid/100 g food. The calculations necessary to convert this data are included in the paper.

Brude, 1. R., C. A. Drevon, 1. Hjermann, 1. Seljeflot, S. Lund-Katz. 1997. Peroxidation of LDL from combined-hyperlipidemic male smokers supplied with omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 17:2576-88.

Bruna, E., E. Petit, M. Beljean-Leymarie, S. Huynh, and A. Nouvelot. 1989. Specific susceptibility of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid to peroxidation in aqueous solution. Lipids. 24:970-975.

Cawood, J.F. 1934. Shortening value of plastic fats. Ind. Eng. Chem. 26:968.

The purpose of this paper is to report investigations to determine if the shortening value of several fats is related to the amount of fat needed to produce a tender pastry. The effect of type of flour on shortening value was also assessed.

Christie, W. 1982. Lipid Analysis. . Pergamon Press Inc., Elmsford, NY. 36-41.

Chung, B. H., J. P. Segrest, M. J. Ray, J. D. Brunzell, J. E. Hokanson. 1986. Single vertical spin density gradient ultracentrifugation. Methods Enzymol. 128:181-209.

Coe, M.R. 1937. Photochemical studies of rancidity: Rate of peroxide development under constant intensity light. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 14:171.

This study reports investigations of the rate of development of peroxide in cottonseed and corn oils that were subjected to irradiation by 500-watt CX Maxda lamps (tungsten filament in ultraviolet transmitting glass).

Cort, W.M. 19074. Antioxidant acitivty of tocopherols, ascorbyl palmitate, and ascorbic acid and their mode of action. A.A.O.C.S. 51:321.

A comparision between tocopherol, ascorbyl palmitate and asocribc acid antioxidant activities in chicken, pork and beef fat and soybean and safflower oils was made. The mechanism of antioxidant activity and air oxidations was also examined.

Cosgrove, J. P., D. F. Church, and W. A. Pryor. 1987. The kinetics of the autoxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids. 22:299-304.

Daubert, B.F. 1949. The chemistry of fats. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 26:553.

This article discusses the structure and composition of different classes of fats. Also included is a description of autoxidation and some chemical tests to determine degree of rancidity, saturation, souble volatile acids, amount of linoleic and linolenic acids among other tests.

Daubert, B.F. and P.W. O'Connell. 1953. Reversion problems in edible fats. Adv. Food Res. 4:185.

This review article incoprorates some discussion of the follow topics: conditions of reversion development; reverted fats and their flavor characteristics; chemical chnages accompanying reversion; and processing methods for minimizing reversion.

Daviglus, M. L., J. Stamler, A. J. Orencia, A. R. Dyer, K. Liu. 1997. Fish consumption and the 30-year risk of fatal myocardial infarction. NEngl JMed 336:1046-53.

Davis, C.E. 1921. Shortening: Its definition and measurement. Ind. Eng. Chem. 13:797.

An apparatus was designed and tested to determine the breaking or crushing strength of foods containing shortening. Sugar cookies were produced containing lards, oils and hydrogenated fats and breaking strength was evaluated.

Defouw, C.L., M.E. Zabik, and J.I. Gray. 1981. Fractionated edible beef tallow as a deep-fat frying medium for French fries. Journal of Food Science 46:452.

El-Hamdy, A., and E. G. Perkins. 199 1. High performance reversed phase chromatography of natural triglyceride mixtures:critical pair separation. JAm Oil Chem Soc. 58:867-72.

Erickson, M.D. and N. Frey. 1994. Property-enhanced oils in food applications. Food technology 48: 63.

Esterbauer, H., J. Gebicki, H. Puhl, and G. Jurgens. 1992. The role of lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in oxidative modification of LDL. Free Radic Biol Med 13:341-90.

Esterbauer, H., G. Striegl, H. Puhl, and M. Rotheneder. 1989. Continuous monitoring of in vitro oxidation of human low density lipoprotein. Free Radic Res Commun. 6:67-75.

Fioriti, J.A. 1977. Measuring flavor deterioration of fats, oils, dried emulsions and foods. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 54:450.

Flavor determioration was evaluated by a sensory panel in terms of aroma intensity and detection of rancidity. Objective measurements of volatile (CO2, pentane) and non-volatile (anisidine reactive compounds) peroxide decomposition products were determined and compared with conventional peroxide values and oxygen absorption measurements.

Fisher, J.D. 1933. Shortening value of plastic fats. Ind. Eng. Chem. 25:1171.

The use of different types of fats in varying concentrations on the breaking strengths and shortening values of pie pastry were compared.

Frankel, E. N., E. J. Parks, R. Xu, B. 0. Schneeman, P. A. Davis. 1994. Effect of n-3 fatty acid-rich fish oil supplementation on the oxidation of low density lipoproteins. Lipids. 29:233-6.

Frankel, E. N. 1998. Lipid Oxidation. The Oily Press LTD, Dundee, Scotland. I - 289.

Freeman, I.P., F.B. Padley, and V.L. Sheppard. 1973. Use of silicones in frying oils. Journal American Oil Chem. Sco. 50(4): 101.

Frei, B., Y. Yamamoto, D. Niclas, and B. N. Ames. 1988. Evaluation of an isoluminol chemiluminescence assay for the detection of hydroperoxides in human blood plasma. Anal Biochem. 175:120-30.

Friedewald, W. T., R. 1. Levy, and D. S. Fredrickson. 1972. Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. Clin Chem. 18:499-502.

Fudano, S., T. Kusuyama, K. Yashima, S. Terai and K. Konishi. 1977. Computer-controlled automatic titration system and its application to the analysis of fats and oils. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 54:367.

A description of an automatic titration system using a micro-computer is given. Saponification values, amine values, acid values and chlorine and chloride content obtained by manual titration procedures are compared with the values obtained using the automatic titration system.

Graziano, V.J. 1978. Quick test answers question of frying fat quality. Food Prod. Develop. 12(2):16.

This article discusses the use of the Foodoil-Sensor Oil Quality Analyzer to evaluate "fry life" for oils used in deep-fat frying.

Gunstone, F.D. 1967. An introduction to the Chemistry and Biochemistry of Fatty Acids and their Glycerides. 2nd Ed. chapman and Hall, Ltd. England.

Gyorgy, P., K. Murata and Y. Sugimoto. 1974. Studies on antioxidant activity of tempeh oil. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 51:377.

The addition of tempeh oil to protect cottonseed, soy, corn and safflower oils from autoxidation was investigated. Peroxide values were used to measure autoxidation.

Hall, E.G., S.B. Johnson, L.D. Dawson, M.M. Mahfouz, and R.T. Holman. 1982. Penturbation of the metabolism of essential fatty acids by dietary partially hydrogenated vegetable oil. Proc. Natl. Assoc. Sci. USA 79: 953.

Harkins, W.D., G.L. Clark and L.E. Roberts. 1920. The orientation of molecules in surfaces, surface energy, adsorption, and surface catalysis. V. The adhesional work between organic liquids and water. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 42:700.

The interaction of molecules at the interface when organic liquids and water are mixed is reported. Seventy organic substances and water were evaluated for free surface energy, adhesional work, interfacial free energy, surface adhesion and density.

Harats, D., Y. Dabach, G. Hollander, M. Ben-Naim, R. Schwartz. 1991. Fish oil ingestion in smokers and nonsmokers enhances peroxidation of plasma lipoproteins. Atherosclerosis. 90:127-39.

Helsing, E. 1995. Traditional diets and disease patterns of the Mediterranean, circa 1960. AmJClinNutr. 61:1329S-1337S.

Jim Henderson. 2000, March 12. Fats and Lipids Resource Page. Northern Instruments Corporation, the manufacturer of Food Oil-Sensor Products.([ The correlation of 4.0 FOS reading with 27%PC relates to the Swiss regulations ] )

Hermann, C.L. and J.J. McGlade. 1974. Industrial applications for animal fatty oils. J.A.O.C.S. 51:88.

This article discusses the origin of animal by-products, the rendering and refining processes used to manufacture these by-products into useful animal oils and the industrial uses of these oils. Physical properties of lard oils such as free fatty acid, color and pour, flash and fire points are listed.

Hornstein, L.R., F.B. King and F. Benedict. 1943. Comparative shortening value of some commercial fats. Food Res. 8:1.

The shortening values of fats used in pastry and modified shortbread were investigated. The relationship between consistency and shortening value was determined. Other measurements reported in this article were specific gravity during creaming, iodine number, free fatty acid, melting point and congealing point.

Howard, B.D. and E.H. Morse. 1973. Muffins and pastry made with medium-chain triglyceride oil. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 62:51.

The effects of different amounts of oil on the characteristics of muffins were collected and analyzed. The results of the data were not included although they were discussed in the article.

Hvolby, A. 1974. Expansion of solidifying saturated fats. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 51:50.

Numerous oils including coconut oil, cocoa butter, corn, cottonseed, soybean and peanut oils were analyzed for their fatty acid composition, glyceride composition and iodine values. Various solidification conditions were used to examine the solidification expansion.

Jequier, E. 1987. Energy, obesity, and body weight standards. American Journal Clinical Nutrition 45:1035-1047.

Johnson, B. 1999. Bakery margarines. Cereal Foods World 44(3): SR-9.

Jordan, R. 1944. A study of hydrogenated lard and other shortenings as culinary fats. Bull. 498. Indiana Exp. Sta., Lafayette, Indiana.

Soft lard was partially hdyrogenated to determine if there was an effect on its culinary qualities.

Keuhl, R. 0. 1994. Statistical Principles of Research Design and Analysis. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA. 529-55 1.

Keys, A., A. Menotti, M. J. Karvonen, C. Aravanis, H. Blackburn. 1986. The diet and 15-year death rate in the seven countries study. Am Journal EpidemioL 124:903-15.

Koman, V. and J. Kotuc. 1976. computer determination of chemical and physical values of fats and oils from GLC fatty acid composition, acid value and titer. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 53:563.

Acid and titer values and fatty acid composition measured by gas-liquid-chromatography analysis were determined on coconut, peanut, sunflower, linseed and rapeseed oils and lard in an attempt to develop a computer program which would determine the physicochemical constants such as iodine value, saponification values and specific gravity. A comparison of iodine and saponification values obtained conventionally were compared with those determined by the computer.

Kromhout, D., E. B. Bosschieter, and C. de Lezenne Coulander. 1985. The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 312:1205-9.

Kuntz, L.A. 1994November. The changing world of fats & oils. Food Product Development :32.

La Guardia, M.K. 1994March. High-performance fat systems in baked products. Cereal Foods World 39(3):147.

Lowe, B., P.M. Nelson and J.H. Buchanan. 1938. The physical and chemical characteristics of lards and other fats in relation to their culinary value. I. Shortening value in pastry and cookies. Res. Bull. 242. Iowa Agric. Exp. Sta., Ames, Iowa.

The shortening values of lard and other fats were compared in pastry and cookies. Variations in the length of time of combining the fat with the flour, the length of time of mixing the water with the fat-flour mixture and the age of the dough were evaluated by measuring the breaking strength of pastry produced under those different conditions.

Lee, C., J. Barnett, and P. D. Reaven. 1998. Liposomes enriched in oleic acid are less susceptible to oxidation and have less proinflammatory activity when exposed to oxidizing conditions. J Lipid Res. 39:1239-47.

List, G.R., E.A. Braken, W.F. Kwolek, T.D. Simpson, and J.H. Dutton. 1977. "Zero trans" margarins: preparation, structure, and properties of interesterified soybean oil-soy trisaturate blends. Journal American Oil Chem. Soc. 54: 408.

Lowry, 0. H., N. J. Rosebrough, A. L. Farr, and R. J. Randall. 195 1. Protein measured with the folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem. 193:265-275.

Lowry, J. 1960. The chemical composition, certain rheological properties, and the shortening power of fat. M.S. thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.

The relationship in fats bestween the shortening value, chemical composition and rheological properties was investigated.

Lutton, E.S. 1972. Lipid structures. Journal American Oil Chemistrys Soc. 49: 1.

Lyle, B.J., K.E. McMahon, P.A. Kreutler. 1992. Assessing the potential dietary impact of replacing dietary fat with other macronutrients. Journal Nutr. 122: 211-216.

Manolio, T. A., C. D. Furberg, L. Shemanski, B. M. Psaty, D. H. O'Leary. 1993. Associations of postmenopausal estrogen use with cardiovascular disease and its risk factors in older women. The CHS Collaborative Research Group. Circulation. 88:2163-71.

Mata, P., R. Alonso, A. Lopez-Farre, J. M. Ordovas, C. Lahoz. 1996. Effect of dietary fat saturation on LDL oxidation and monocyte adhesion to human endothelial cells in vitro. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 16:1347-55.

Matthews, R.H. and E.H. Dawson. 1963. Performance of fats and oils in pastry and biscuits. Cereal Chem. 40:291.

Optimum levels of corn oil, cottonseed oil, soybean oil, lard and two levels of hydrogenated vegetable fats were determined in pastry and baking powder biscuits.

Mattson, F. H., and S. M. Grundy. 1985. Comparison of effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids on plasma Lipids and lipoproteins in man. J Lipid Res. 26:194-202.

McGowan, M. W., J. D. Artiss, D. R. Strandbergh, and B. Zak. 1983. A peroxidase-coupled method for the calorimetric determination of serum triglycerides. Clin Chem. 29:538-42.

Mela, D.J. 1992. Nutritional implications of fat substitutes. Journal Amiercan Dietetic. Assoc. 92(4): 472-476.

Mensink, R. P., and M. B. Katan. 1992. Effect of dietary fatty acids on serum Lipids and lipoproteins. A meta- analysis of 27 trials. Arterioscler Thromb. 12:911-9.

Mertens, W.G. 1973. Fat melting point determinations. A reveiw. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 50:115.

This paper discusses various methods to determine the melting point. The principles employed using these methods were evaluated in both animal and vegetable fats.

Morgan, A.F. and E.R. Cozens. 1919. Changes in physical and chemical constants of fats used for frying a standard dough. Journal Home Econ. 11:394.

A standard doughout recipe was used to assess the chemical and physical changes that occur with fats during frying. Melting point, iodine number, acidity, refraction index and saponification number were the tests applied before and after frying.

Nakamura, H. 1987. Distribution of free-cholesterol and alpha-tocopherol in plasma lipoprotein and tissues in humans. In Clinical and Nutritional Aspects of Vitamin E, ed. Hayaishi, O., and M. Mino. Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, NY. 10 I - 1 08.

National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP). 1993. Summary of the second report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel 11). Jama. 269:3015-23.

National Research Council Food and Nutrition Board. 1989. Recommended Dietary Allowances. I Oth ed. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 2 84.

Nenseter, M. S., A. C. Rustan, S. Lund-Katz, E. Soyland, G. Maelandsmo. 1992. Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on physical properties and metabolism of low density lipoprotein in humans. Arterioscler Thromb. 12:369-79.

Noble, I.T., H. McLaughlin and E.G. Halliday. 1934. Factors influenceing the apparent shortening value of a fat. Cereal Chem. 11:343.

This article reports the effect of various manipulations on the breaking strength of shortbread. Alterations investigated included amount of mixing, creamed volume of fat and sugar, flour excess and flour added during rolling.

Nonaka, M., M.L. Weaver and R.N. Sayre. 1974. Reducing the surface oil content of fried products. Food Technol. 28(5):50.

Various treatments, including agitation, temperature, contact time and use of difluorodichloromethane (R-12), were tested to determine the affect on surface oil reduction in fried foods. Potato and corn products were chosen as the experimental material.

Pace, W.E., W.B. Westphal and S.A. Goldblith. 1968. Dielectric properties of commercial cooking oils. journal Food Science 33:30.

The dielectric constant and loss tangent were determined on commercial fats and oils at three microwave frequencies and at three different temperatures. This data was compared to the detree of saturation, measured by the iodine value.

Paradis, A.J. and W.W. Nawar. 1981. Evaluation of new methods for the assessment of used frying oils.Journal of Food Science 46:449.

Parodi, P.W. 1972. Observations on the variation in fatty acid composition of milkfat. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 27:90.

This article reports the fatty acid composition of milk fat. Softening point of various milk fats was also evaluated.

Petrowski, G.E. 1976. Emulsion stability and its relation to foods. Adv. Food Res. 22:309.

This review article incorporates some discussion of the following topics: the types of emulsions and how they are formed; factors which influence emulsions; and characterization of fats and oils.

Pikul, J., D.E. Leszczynski, and F.A. Kummerow. 1989. Evaluation of three modified TBA methods for measuring lipid oxidation in chicken meat. Journal Agric. Food Chemistry 37: 1309-1313.

Piskur, M.m. 1942. Review of literature on fats, oils and soap. Journal American Oil Chemists Society 19:63.

This reviews the literature available on biochemical and physiological studies, deterioration and composition studies and the characteristics of fats and oils. A brief discussion of detergents is also included.

Pocklington, W. D., and A. Dieffenbacher. 1988. Determination of tocopherols and tocotrienols in vegetable oils and fats by high performance liquid chromatography. Pure Appl Chem. 60:877-892.

Position of The American Dietetic Association: fat replacements. Journal American Dietetic Association. 91(10): 1285-1288.

Reaven, P. D., B. J. Grasse, and D. L. Tribble. 1994. Effects of linoleate-enriched and oleate-enriched diets in combination with alpha-tocopherol on the susceptibility of LDL and LDL subtractions to oxidative modification in humans. Arterioscler Thromb. 14:557-66.

Reaven, P., S. Parthasarathy, B. J. Grasse, E. Miller, F. Almazan. 1991. Feasibility of using an oleate-rich diet to reduce the susceptibility of low-density lipoprotein to oxidative modification in humans. American Journal Clinical Nutrition 54:701-6.

Ruoff, G.E. 1991. Reducing fat intake with fat substitutes. American Family Physicians. 43(4): 1235-1242.

Saffel, R.L. 1968. Meat emulsions. Adv. Food Res. 16:105.

This review article incorporates some discussion of the following topics: theory and model systems of meat emulsions; factors affecting production of meat emulsions; texture of meat emulsions; and casings for meat emulsions.

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Updated: Sunday, March 30, 2008.